Racism A Social Construct - 1593 Words

As I have lived most all of my life here in NYC, I have been affected by implicit biases, prejudices and discrimination based on my race, however my socioeconomic class, gender and my sexual orientation are significant forces of my social identity that not only define who I am, but are interconnected in the way I am and have been oppressed. Albeit racism has an impact on all of our lives in the US, however; it’s the intersectionality of the other social identity forces that when they are interacting with racism, they manifest many forms of social oppression. My social identity is that of an African-American, married lesbian woman. Racism is a social construct that has serious impact on many people’s lives. Heterosexism, also a social construct and racism contribute to the ever widening inequality gap. To slow sown or change the gap growth, policies would have to be imposed that would be specific to gender diversity and equality. Racism is structurally embedded in many institutions, but so does heterosexism as well. They may not be overtly visible, however when one is identified as homosexual, [s]he may become under attack from by the same institutions that are in place to protect in our society. . For many, the social construct of racism is created from a visible trait or characteristic that is visible and obvious, however sexual orientation can be hidden or unspoken. Anti –gay rhetoric, attitudes and behaviors, which in turn, leads to â€Å"patterns ofShow MoreRelatedRacism : A Historical And Social Construct1815 Words   |  8 PagesRacism: A Historical and Social Construct in America â€Å"Racism is the belief that characteristics and abilities can be attributed to people simply on the basis of their race and that some racial groups are superior to others. Racism and discrimination have been used as powerful weapons encouraging fear or hatred of others in times of conflict, [or] war, the fight for civil rights, and during economic downturns† (Shah). Racism has evolved throughout the years, yet still remains pervasive and highlyRead MoreInequality: Race And Racism. The Race Is A Social Construct1371 Words   |  6 PagesInequality: Race and Racism The race is a social construct that has real life consequences. The race is a fiction created by the dominant part of the society in order to legitimize their supremacy on those they wish to regulate. Racism: a term that was first coined by the Nazis in the 1930s in their attempt to make Germany clean of Jews . The race is a social construct that has both biological and cultural aspects but not based on scientific truths. The origin of the racial differences can be trackedRead More Racism: A Historical and Social Construct in America Essay2951 Words   |  12 PagesRacism, will it ever end? The answer is probably not. The United States of America was set up on the basis of race. Even many years ago European settlers looked down upon the Native Americans as inferior. Years later in today’s modern society, racism still exists, although we may not fully realize it. Many people are not aware of how much racism still exists in our schools workforces, and anywhere else where social lives are occurring. Using our sociological imagination, we are capable of applyingRead MoreSocial Construction Of Race And Gender1529 Words   |  7 PagesSocial Construction of Race and Gender, Patriarchy and Prejudice and Discrimination in the Society Social construct may be defined as the social mechanism or a category which has been created by the society. It may either be a perception which is created by an individual or an idea which is constructed as a result of the culture. The present society has created a large number of constructs which are not good. In this paper, the discussion will be done on the social construction of raceRead MoreThe And Race Expert Dr. Beverly Daniel Tatum1312 Words   |  6 Pagesauthor engages her readers in conversations about race she has had in her personal life. In part one of the book, Tatum defines terms in order to understand racism. The words prejudice and racism are two of her most defined words. She details how they distinguish from one another. Being prejudice, which is also consequence of cultural racism, means having preconceived assumption or an opinion with little to no knowledge. Which is basically stereotyping of cultural practices. This is where imagesRead MoreA Conversation about Race: A Documentary by Craig Bodeker Essay949 Words   |  4 Pages In the movie, Mr. Bodeker attempts to debunk racism. The film centers on interviews of people in Denver, Colorado who answered a Craigslist posting entitled â€Å"Ending Racism Now† as well as people interviewed on street corners presumably at random. Mr. Bodeker presents clips of these interviews and provides narration. According to Mr. Bodeker, the film’s purpose is to expose the myth of racism and show how the White race suffers from reverse racism and double st andards (Dispatch Inc, 2013). TheRead MoreRacism Racism1172 Words   |  5 PagesIn the article, â€Å"Racism is real, race is not,† the author Adam Hochman argues that while racism is a very real and terrible system within our global society, the concept of race is not real and cannot be proven as such either biologically or socially speaking. Hochman states that though racism has emerged from the categorization of populations based upon physical attributes, race itself does not truly exist. Furthermore, he purports that race has no biological foundation; though most people believeRead MoreRace: The Start of It All779 Words   |  4 Pagesare, firstly, the biological and scientific explanations of racial subdivision (Andreasen, Templeton, MacEachern, Rushton, Hall); secondly, the social and cultural aspect of race and how this contrasts with the biological definition (CLR); and finally, the political side to race and how it is debated that race ultimately emerged from Capitalism and that racism can be a bolished with the implementation of socialism(Cohen, Bannerji, C.L.R). Despite the wide variety of arguments surrounding the tabooRead MoreRace Is A Biological Reality Or A Social Construct?1566 Words   |  7 PagesI used to think that race was a social construct more of a biological reality until I read all these articles. They changed my perspective and I have come to realize different things. My opinion is now divided into two; I am in that middle point where I can see both ways of the argument as valid and reasonable and agree with both. First, I will explain why I think it is a biological reality, then, I will explain why it can also be a social construct, and lastly how have these debates shaped the viewsRead MoreAnalysis Of The Book Five Faces Of Oppression By Charles W. Mills1050 Words   |  5 Pageshave the power to set rules. Iris Marian Young discusses oppression brought on by racism having five faces that constructs a society and shapes an individual in the book â€Å"Five Faces of Oppression† While some might say it is a social construct, it does not exist and if it does it is only meant to encourages people of a lower class to work harder, racism is a form of discrimination and needs to be put to an end. Racism causes inequality and oppresses certain groups of people. It leads a belief that

What Is A Worldview - 1098 Words

What is a worldview? What is biblical worldview? How are they different from each other? Worldview implies the beginning of how people view and make sense of life and the world. People with a biblical worldview, also known as a Christian worldview, believes that their main reason for living life on earth is to love and serve God, as well as teach others about Him. The Bible teaches us about four topics and how they affect people’s worldview. The Bible is very important to read because it can help the reader learn more about God as well as learning the truth about what God says. Reading the Bible will also help answer questions that people might be wondering and wanting to know for a long time. Genesis 1-11 and Romans 1-8 teach us about the natural world, human identity, human relationships, and civilization. Genesis 1-11 answers many questions that people have about the natural world, especially in the first two chapters. Genesis clearly states that God created all things. He created the earth, man, animals, plants, and all other living things on earth. These scriptures explain how God created the world in six days and, on the seventh day, He rested from the work that was done. Then, â€Å"God blessed the seventh day and sanctified it, because in it He rested from all His work which God had created and made† (Genesis 2:3 NASB). He did not create anything else on the seventh day but instead rested. The Bible then goes on to discredit the theory of evolution by saying, â€Å"The earthShow MoreRelatedWhat Is A Worldview?1095 Words   |  5 PagesPart 1: What is a worldview? Webster’s New World College Dictionary simply defines a worldview as a noun which means the way someone thinks about the world (Agnes, 1999). Essentially, a worldview is a model of how a person views reality. It consists of attitudes and ideas about our lives and the world around us. Worldviews are molded by our backgrounds, life experiences, values instilled in us by our parents and education. In the context of religion, a worldview is an ideology of how one understandsRead MoreWhat Makes A Worldview?1813 Words   |  8 PagesA worldview is the philosophy or belief of an individual in regards to how he or she answers the following: what prime reality is, who or what created humans and the universe (if they were even created), what makes someone a human, where do humans go when they die (if they go anywhere), what the purpose of a human is, if Truth is something that exists, and what morality should be (how humans should act what is good or evil) (Vidal 2). There are se veral types of worldviews that people have trustRead MoreWhat Defines Your Worldview? Essay857 Words   |  4 PagesHow you define your worldview is how you see the world through your eyes. Everyone has a different worldview and different components to make their worldview. The three components that make up my worldview are God, knowledge, and ethics, because they shaped my thoughts, experiences, education, and my life decisions. The basic idea of whether there is a God or not is very abstract. It is impossible to prove that no God exists and it is for that reason that it is not considered a scientific conceptRead More What is Worldview? Essay example1024 Words   |  5 Pages After reading the fourth chapter heading of Consider, the first definition of worldview that came to my mind was â€Å"view of the world† just from a literary perspective. The co-authors defined worldview as â€Å"a framework a person brings to decision-making† (Weider Gutierrez, 2011, p.51). Everyone has a worldview with main characteristics that are ever changing. Different sources influence this framework such as parenting, friendship, telecommunication or internet media, educational and religiousRead MoreThe Christian Worldview And What Impacts Those Beliefs Have On My Own Worldview1290 Words   |  6 Pagesessential elements of the Christian worldview. God is the largest element due to His place as the foundation of the power and influence. God created humanity and allowed for their fall. He positioned Jesus Christ to save humanity from itself, satisfy divine judgment, and to reconcile their relationship with God. This paper will explain how each component is essential to the Christian worldview and what impacts those beliefs have on my own worldview. God The Christian worldview revolves around God. In theRead MoreWorldview Is What You Think About The World975 Words   |  4 PagesWhat is Worldview? Worldview is what you see and think about the world. So it would depend on the person on what they think about the world since everyone is different. It is what you believe of what you have heard and would take it to heart of what you believe. For example in the book called Finding Your Worldview: Thinking Christianly about the World, it gives an example of different color lens. When you give others a different color lens each of them is going to be seeing it differently andRead MoreWhat Is Puberty? : A Critical Period Of Life And Worldview845 Words   |  4 PagesWhat is Puberty? Puberty refers to the adolescent physiological development and psychological development period of rapid change, the transition from childhood period to adulthood; a critical period of life and worldview is gradually formed. Usually is after the child 10 years old. In the transition to adult sexual development, performance, body, and an important period of heart full development characterize sexual maturity. Sexual maturity is the core of puberty. The main changes of puberty canRead MoreMoral Relativism And The Biblical Worldview Of What Is Right And Wrong950 Words   |  4 PagesMoral relativism is the philosophy that moral or ethical propositions do not represent moral truths, but are effected by the environment in person’s life. Christians have a worldview that believes otherwise based on the biblical worldview of what is right and wrong proposed by James Sire. Issues that are ethically questionable but not specifically banned in Leviticus, or in the Bible in general, such as gambling, drinking alcohol, and divorce are examples of how even seemingly unclear topics areRead MoreNaturalism And What This Worldview Teaches About The Value Of Life1380 Words   |  6 Pages Lets take a look at naturalism and what this worldview teaches about the value of life. If one holds consistently to this worldview, there will be no value or purpose to life. He will have no explanation for why we humans are here. In fact, he will hav e no explanation for why any maternal thing is here. Humans and other material things would be on the same level. We all are here by chance. We have no reason to be here and there is no purpose for our existence. Humans would not be anymore more specialRead MoreWhat Ways Has Colonization Impacted On A M Ä€ Ori Worldview?2093 Words   |  9 PagesWith particular regard to education, in what ways has colonisation impacted on a MÄ ori worldview? Introduction Colonialism and imperialism are two old terms that scaffold people’s thoughts about the systemic exploitation of environmental or natural resources in other lands. It is used to refer to European people, as the imperialists and colonialists, as they made expeditions throughout the world to find new lands and natural resources from the 1500s onwards (Taketani, 2003). Colonialism and imperialism

Contemporary Strategy Management

Question: Analyse the strategic issues of the Vodafone Company that is the leading company in mobile communications. Answer: 1. Introduction Vodafone Group PLC is the worlds leading mobile telecommunication company that is operating network in more than 26 countries as well as has partner network with more than 50 countries around the world with significant presence in Europe, the Middle East, Africa, Asia pacific and the United State (Vodafone, 2016). The company was formed as subsidiary of Radal electronic PLC in 1908 and was established to explore the opportunity of the new cellular technology for wireless communication. Furthermore, the companys strategy is focusing on international market and expand its brand precent around the world. The organisation has been managed successfully over 4 CEO with Vittorio Colao who is the fourth CEO and current CEO to manage the company. The main aim of the report is to analyse the strategic issues of the Vodafone Company that is the leading company in mobile communications. The main problem that the company is facing is with maintaining the profit of the company. The main aim of the company recently is to move the strategies to improve the profitability of the firm instead of growth. The objective is to manage international strategies in order increase the global network. The report critically evaluates the case study on Vodafone 2012: Rethinking international strategy. Analysing the case study the author answers the questions such as benefits of international scope in wireless telecomm. The report gives advice to Vodafone on its international strategy as to the business on which Vodafone should divest and invest (Eden and Ackermann 2013). This report is conducted in the purpose of identifying strategic issues or problems that Vodafone is faced which likely to affect the organisation international performance as well as analysis and evaluate each problem in detail and give recommendation for Vodafone to have a better improvement in its strategy and performance in international market. Colao the new CEO of Vodafone company aims at improving the profit condition of the company and expanding the business in the international market. It aims at increasing the benefit that the company can get from its international scope. The organization has been managed successfully over four CEO with Vittorio Colao being the fourth and the current CEO to manage the company. Furthermore, the companys strategy is focusing on international market and expands its brand percent around the world. 2. Identification strategic issues and problems The main benefits of expanding business in international market are that it helps in creating differentiated product giving advantage to the company. The other benefits of international scope and providing its service to other countries are to offer seamless roaming service. It also allows flexibility of the promotional ideas. It also allows innovation of new products. The main benefit of international scope in wireless telecom is competitive advantage, product differentiation, economies of scale, risk management and technological change. Hence in order to grab these opportunities and expand its business in international market the company needs to identify the international strategic issues and problems. It should then aim at solving these issues for the benefit of the company in the international market (Gamble and Thompson 2014). The number of competitors for the wirelesses communication is rising in the international market that is making it essential for the company to adopt strategies that will lead in international integration. To reach to top position in the international market it is essential for the company to review its international strategies for the benefit of the company. The main competitors of Vodafone Company are ATT, China mobile and Nippon Telegraph and telephone. To maximize profit, gaining competitive advantage is essential so that the company is able to create a unique brand name to build customer loyalty (Ghezzi 2013). The strategic issues and problem which listed below are exist in Vodafones current situation and implementation. In order to improve the company international performance, these issues need to take into account to have better strategy and development. 3.1 Differences in customer preferences technology development, and technology in operating region The main strategic issues occurred in Vodafone international strategy (One Vodafone), which leads One Vodafone strategy fail to run and operate globally, are the differences in culture, technology, and technology development. As One Vodafone strategy are trying to use the single technology platform in the market that the company enters and operates. Particularly, the difference in technology development, technology, and customer preferences in two markets, including Japan, The US have made Vodafone fail to run and manage its strategy successfully. The main strategic issue that affects the companys growth in the global market is the differences in the culture of the people. The main aim of Colao should be to deal with the differences in consumer preferences in order to levy its strategy successfully. The main issue is differences in the technological culture between the countries that the company was not being able to handle. , The US have made Vodafone fail to run and manage its strategy successfully (Galliers and Leidner 2014). 3.2 Vodafone has not manage its portfolio effectively (lack of control over its subsidiaries) Strategic issues that exist in Vodafone international strategy (One Vodafone), which leads Vodafone to not manage its international portfolio effectively, are Vodafone lack of control over its subsidiaries in the US, Japan and France market. Although Vodafone has holding minority of stake of Verizon wireless (45 %) in the US market and SFR (44%) in the France market, those two company are not adapted Vodafone while operating in the market. It has shown that Vodafone has not leverage its resources to expand its global presence. The main strategic issue that affects the companys growth in the global market is the differences in the culture of the people. The main aim of Colao should be to deal with the differences in consumer preferences in order to levy its strategy successfully. The main issue is differences in the technological culture between the countries that the company was not being able to handle. , The US have made Vodafone fail to run and manage its strategy successfully (Frynas and Mellahi 2015). 3.3 Vodafone is slow in responding to industry evolution (changing industry evaluation) Vodafone is slowing to respond the market trend due to its mobile focus only strategy. According to (Grant 2013, p. 690) a key market trend was the integration of fixed and mobile communication through bundled offering to customer. While most of domestic focus operator offered quadruple play bundles including comprising fixed and mobile telephony, broadband internet access, and television services, Vodafone is slow to response in this trend and has no strategy for convergence. Furthermore, Vodafone total communication strategy is considered slow reaction to the market trend as they was not able to effectively provide full value to customer in term of bundle offering of mobile and fixed line communication. Due to the industry evolution, handsets market with their software such as Apple (IPhone, IPad), RIM (Blackberry) has shift to be the key player in the industry. However, Vodafone was unable to distributes iPhone or offer their service to iPhone user until 2008. Furthermore, the growing dominant of Apple in mobile internet access meaning that they dominant supply wireless application will limit the value Vodafone can offer to their customer in term of wireless application (Reddy et al. 2014). To improve its international business performance to maximize its profit is that Vodafone can expand its scope and can divest its business into entertainment market. The company should also concentrate on investing in joint venture with the local service provider. Colaos strategy was to expand the business in the market where Vodafone lacked a controlling stakes such as Japan, India and other countries. It is essential for Vodafone to increase its pace of work. It is slow in responding to industry evolution. It also has lack of control of businesses in its international portfolios such as United States and France (Ghezzi et al. 2014). 4. Analysis and evaluation The analysis of the case study shows that the strategy put forth by Colao ahs helped Vodafone company increase its growth. It has reinforced its growth as the worlds most international telecommunication provider. The main problem with Vodafone is to maintain and achieve competitive advantage. The main strategy of Vittorio Colao was to increase and improve the customer value by providing them satisfactory products and reducing the cost of production. The second aim was to strengthen the capital discipline (Grant 2015). 4.1. Difference in customer preferences, technology, and technology development Competitive advantages within international content analysis framework (appendix) are going to use in order to analyse Vodafone current issues and thus to help Vodafone to re identify its competitive advantage in the international market that they are enter and operate, especially Japan and the US market. According to Grant (2013, p 319), competitive advantage in the international content analysis framework helps the organisation to understand how competitive advantage is achieved in the international market when the organisation match its internal strength in resources and capabilities. Moreover, the framework also points out that gaining the competitive advantage in the international market depends on not only firm resources but also the national environment that the firm enters to. Firstly, in relation to Vodafone resources and capabilities in the US and Japan market, technology is the main concern that Vodafone need to take into consideration. One Vodafone strategy is to standard ize the technology and to try to use that same technology platform in every market they are entering, however, difference in technology platform in Japan and The US market have made One Vodafone fail to run effectively and thus Vodafone doesnt achieve the competitive advantage in those market. According to Grant (2013, p. 684), Japan and the US used cellular wireless technologies that differed from the GSM European standard that are used by Vodafone across its other market. For example: Verizon Wireless (the US) used CDMA, which was incompatible with GSM that is used in European. Furthermore, the industry environment is another factors that to evaluate whether the organisation can achieve competitive advantage in the international market or not. In case of Vodafone, entering to the market which have a higher or lower national capacity in technology such as the US, and Japan have made Vodafone fail to achieve the competitive advantage in those market. According to (Grant 2013, p.684) Japan regarded as the worlds advanced market, adopting the wireless technology communication at least two year earlier than Euro. Thus, entering in to the market which have a higher technology capacity like Japan and tried to standardise Vodafone technology and run globally strategy are fail to run or operate. For example : with development of technology in Japan, introducing Vodafone global handset in these market made the users are not satisfy with the technology due to the phone were consider technology backward. On the hands, the US market is considered as slow development in technology which are laggard in adoption 3G wireless technology as well as multiple, incompatible, wireless standard have again pointed out that Vodafone are not able use the same technology platform to operated globally. Besides, trying to standardlise the technology and entering in the market which have higher or lower technology development like US and Japan also made Vodafone fail achieve competitive a dvantage in those market. 4.2 Vodafone has not manage its portfolio effectively (lack of control over its subsidiaries) Initially, the main issues occurred in Vodafone strategy, which lead Vodafone not manage its portfolio effectively, are Vodafone lacked of control over its business in the US, Poland, India, France. According to Vodafone annual report (2011, p 26), Vodafone possess 45% ownership of Verizon Wireless (US), 24,4 % of Polkomtel ( Poland), 4.4 % of Bharti Airtel ( India), and 44% of SFR ( France ). However, that company have not adopted Vodafone brand whilst they are operating. However, that company have not adopted Vodafone brand whilst they are operating. It is essential for the company to develop products and services that are differentiated in nature in order to manage its portfolio effectively. Since the culture of different countries varies it is essential for the company to develop the product keeping in mind the customer preferences of the market. It is essential for the company to invest in Research and Development and analyse the condition of the market. Analysing the market of France and India is essential before entering and expanding its business in the market. It should also disinvest its products into entertainment sector. Making a deal with Google nexus also will help the company compete in the global market. It is also essential to make acquisitions in other countries where the business is expected to grow such as South Africa, India and Ghana. It also plans to introduce new products in the emerging market such as mobile telephones. The main aim is to expand Vodafones business and make its stand in the corporate world. Introducing new mobile technologies and developing new softwares will help the company expand and manage its business in the portfolio scenario (Hill et al. 2014). 4.3 Vodafone is slow in responding to industry evolution (changing industry evaluation) The main reason for the adoption of responding to industry evolution is the instability in finances and availability of low resources. It is essential to manage its cost structures. The company should concentrate in expanding its products services in order to quickly adapt to technological changes. The employees that work in the company should be efficient, knowledgeable, and skilful to adapt the technologies that are new to the market. The company should also have enough resources and money to adapt the change and react quickly to the scenario and present market condition (Johnson et al. 2015). The product and the value provided to the customers should be high and flexible in nature. The strategies that the company forms should be flexible so that the company can change the strategies as the situation demands. It should also concentrate in developing its communication strategy by developing plans such as effective digital marketing strategies. It is also essential to develop the sof tware according to the new technologies such as Apple and Blackberry. The software that it develops should be in compliance with the technologies that come in the market. The managers should be effective and knowledgeable and also should hire employees that have high skill to manage all the complexities. It is also essential to develop resource that is essential to develop and adapt the change in the technology (Albers 2013). Recommendation The analysis shows that Vodafone should derive increased value from international portfolio of business by making a deal with Google nexus to compete with its rival in the global market. It should also concentrate on providing laptops with data cards of minimum charges in the developing countries. Vodafone Company should concentrate on developing strategies that is globally accepted. The main recommendation is to develop and expand its product service and software from just mobile services to other sectors as well. The employees hired should be such that it is able to adapt the changes in the environment and technology. Software development is necessary and so is the product differentiation in order to gain competitive advantage (McFarlin and Sweeney 2014). Conclusion Hence it is essential for Vodafone to expand its business in the global market. To achieve competitive advantage Vodafone needs to review its international strategies. International scope has many benefits such as technological change, and gaining customer advantage by expanding the market. It is advisable for the company to expand its business in international portfolios and divest its business to other sectors to maximize profit and growth. Portfolio management is essential and concentrating on customer preferences is also essential. The differences in culture cause large variations in technological adaption. Hence it is essential to develop strategies that are efficient in managing the cultural differences of the countries. References Albers, S., 2013.Cooperation and competition dynamics of business networks: A strategic management perspective(No. 111). Working Paper, Department of Business Policy and Logistics, University of Cologne. Eden, C. and Ackermann, F., 2013.Making strategy: The journey of strategic management. Sage. Frynas, J.G. and Mellahi, K., 2015.Global strategic management. Oxford University Press, USA. Galliers, R.D. and Leidner, D.E., 2014.Strategic information management: challenges and strategies in managing information systems. Routledge. Gamble, J.E. and Thompson Jr, A.A., 2014.Essentials of strategic management. Irwin Mcgraw-Hill. Ghezzi, A., 2013. Revisiting business strategy under discontinuity.Management Decision,51(7), pp.1326-1358. Ghezzi, A., Balocco, R. and Rangone, A., 2014, January. The relationship between Open Innovation and Strategy: data-driven analysis of the Mobile Value Services Industry. InSystem Sciences (HICSS), 2014 47th Hawaii International Conference on(pp. 1073-1082). IEEE. Grant, R.M., 2015.Contemporary Strategy Analysis 9e Text Only. John Wiley Sons. Hill, C., Jones, G. and Schilling, M., 2014.Strategic management: theory: an integrated approach. Cengage Learning. Johnson, G., Whittington, R., Scholes, K., Angwin, D. and Regnr, P., 2015.Fundamentals of strategy. Pearson. McFarlin, D. and Sweeney, P.D., 2014.International Management: Strategic Opportunities Cultural Challenges. Routledge. Reddy, K.S., Nangia, V.K. and Agrawal, R., 2014. Farmers Fox Theory: does a country's weak regulatory system benefit both the acquirer and the target firm? Evidence from Vodafone-Hutchison deal.International Strategic Management Review,2(1), pp.56-67.

Mosaics Of San Vitale Essays - Justinian Dynasty,

Mosaics Of San Vitale Mosaics of San Vitale ERIK BUNGO The church of San Vitale in Ravenna was dedicated to St. Vitalis. After the discovery of the bones of the reputed martyrs Agricola and his slave Vitalis at Bologna in the fourth century, Vitalis was widely venerated in the west. The church of which he is the patron saint in Ravenna was begun by Bishop Ecclesius in the second quarter of the sixth century, when the Goths still ruled there. Funds for its construction were supplied by Julianus Argentarius. The church was completed and consecrated by Bishop Maximian in 547/8, after control had passed to the Byzantines . San Vitale was built on an octagonal plan (Ills. 1), with eight heavy piers supporting the drum and dome. The inspiration for the central plan likely came from the east, for Ecclesius had recently returned from a visit to Constantinople, but the construction is Roman. Of special interest are the mosaics of the sanctuary and apse. The mosaics in San Vitale cover the entire sanctuary (Ills. 2,3). In different symbols and ima ges, they all convey one idea: the redemption of mankind by Christ and the sacramental re-enactment of this event in the eucharistic sacrifice. The compositions must thus be understood as the setting for the rite celebrated in this room and as closely related to it. In the vault there appears the Lamb of God in the midst of a wreath, which is supported by four angels standing on globes. The image of the lamb was introduced into the Roman rite only at the end of the seventh century by Pope Sergius I, a Syrian . But, in the liturgies of the East, this symbol of the Christian sacrifice appears at an earlier date, and we are justified in interpreting its representation in San Vitale as alluding to the eucharistic liturgy (Ills. 4). The first arcade of the sanctuary is decorated with fifteen medallions, showing the images of Christ, of the twelve apostles, and of Gervase and Protase, who, with their father Vitalis, were venerated in this church. In the ancient liturgy of Ravenna, all these saints are mentioned in the so-called diptychs, the Book of Life, listing the names of those whom the church wishes to remember at every Mass (Ills. 4, 5). The next bay on either side shows, above the columns supporting the arcades of the galleries, two sacrificial scenes from the Old Testament. On our left, the three angels appearing to Abraham in the valley of Mambre (Genesis, chap. 18), and Isaac whom his father is about to sacrifice; on our right, Abel offering a lamb, and Melchizedek with his sacrifice of bread and wine. Above them, there appears the hand of God, the traditional symbol of the divine presence and of God's acceptance of the sacrifice (Ills. 6, 7). All four scenes allude to the eucharistic sacrifice. To make this significance plain, an altar is depicted between Abel and Melchizedek, on which are placed a chalice and two loaves of bread, identical in shape with that which Melchizedek offers and also with the eucharistic bread which the church used during the sixth century . The altar motif appears again in the opposite mosaic: Isaac is shown kneeling upon an altar, and even the table behind which the three angels are seated resembles the simple wooden altar of Christian antiquity. The three round cakes which Sarah has placed before the heavenly messengers are marked with the sign of the cross and recall again the eucharistic hosts of that time. In patristic exegesis and in Christian art and literature, the four scenes depicted are among the most frequent symbols of the eucharistic sacrifice. Above these mosaics and flanking the graceful arcades of the gallery, the four evangelists are represented: Matthew and Mark on the left wall, John and Luke on the right. All four appear seated in a mountainous landscape, holding their Gospels on their knees. Their symbolic animals are seen above them; writing utensils are placed at their sides (Ills. 8, 9). The relation of these figures to those below is obvious: as the two tables which Moses received on Mount Sinai contained the Old Law, so the New Regulation is contained in the Gospels. In the

The Ultimate Guide to the 28 Main Greek Gods and Goddesses

The Ultimate Guide to the 28 Main Greek Gods and Goddesses SAT / ACT Prep Online Guides and Tips Few figures from ancient mythology are as popular and well-known today as the Greek gods. You can find them in books and movies, company names and Halloween costumes, and even in space, where tons of astrological features are named after them! But what if you want to know more about the Greek goddesses and gods than just their names and a vague idea of their function? In this article we’ll provide a comprehensive guide to the Greek pantheon, starting with an introduction to the Greek gods and their mythic origins. Then, we’ll do a deep dive on the Twelve Olympians, go over some other important minor deities, discuss Greek gods family tree, the history of their worship, and wrap up with all the places you might encounter this ancient pantheon today! Greek Gods and Goddesses: An Introduction As in many ancient religions, there were hundreds of beings recognized as deities by the Greeks. These deities were mostly associated with abstract concepts like memory and justice and natural forces and features like rivers, seasons, death, and rebirth. There were also gods associated with agriculture and craftsmanship (like shepherding and blacksmithing) and the social order (i.e. marriage, the law). These gods were understood primarily as inexorable forces that governed human existence, but they also had a human aspect. These gods also marry, have children, fight, intermingle with mortals, insult each other, take vengeance, make war, and create great art. They have hierarchical and familial relationships. Mythology shows the gods both hurting and harming both mortals and each other in fairly equal measure, and not necessarily in accordance with modern conception of justice or fairness. To the modern observer, ancient religions can seem truly bizarre. The gods seem petty and irrational- not benevolent or better than humans, but embodying the entire spectrum of human strengths and foibles while simultaneously ignoring human conventions (the Greek gods’ family tree is incredibly complicated- and incestuous). But to the Greeks, the gods were not meant to behave better than humans or judge human conduct; they were simply the absolute forces that ordered the universe and drove all phenomena. Their human aspects simply made them intelligible. Mount Olympus, the mythic home of the Greek gods. Photo by flickr user stefg74. Mythic Origins of the Greek Gods and Goddesses In the Greek view, the main gods of Olympus were far from the original gods of the Universe. In the beginning was only Chaos. From Chaos came four beings: #1: Eros, who represented not only love but the power to reproduce#2: Gaia, the earth#3: Tartarus, the empty abyss beneath the earth#4: Nyx, the night Gaia birthed Uranus, the sky, from herself. Gaia and Uranus then had many children together, who were known as the Titans. Among the Titans were both gods and monsters. Uranus was not pleased with Gaia’s monstrous children, and so attempted to force them back into her womb, causing her incredible pain. Because of this, Gaia had her youngest son, the Titan Kronos, castrate his father with a sickle and cast the testicles into the sea. Kronos then became ruler of the gods. He took his sister Rhea as consort. But as he had overthrown his own father, he feared his children would overthrow him. So he consumed each of his children as they were born. However, with her last child, Zeus, Rhea tricked Kronos by offering him a stone wrapped in swaddling instead. She hid Zeus on earth, where he was raised by a nymph. When he grew to manhood, Gaia helped Zeus drug Kronos and then give him a potion to make him throw up all of his siblings: Poseidon, Hades, Demeter, Hera, and Hestia. With his siblings as allies, he established himself at Mount Olympus and led a war against Kronos and the other Titans. With his victory, he became king of the greek gods and goddesses. He imprisoned the defeated Titan men in the depths of Tartarus. However, he allowed the Titan women to remain above and in fact went on to have children with many of them! He also married Hera and made her his consort. To the Greeks, Rhea, Cronus, and the Titans most likely represented the gods who were worshiped before the worship of the main Olympians were established. The Battle Between the Gods and the Titans, by Joachim Wtewael, 1600 Major Figures of the Pantheon: The Twelve Olympians The number twelve had great symbolic significance to the Greeks, and so there always had to be twelve primary Olympians. This is regardless of the fact that far more than twelve gods lived at Olympus, and some of the Twelve barely resided there if at all (like Poseidon and Hades). Myth holds that Hestia forfeited her place as one of the Twelve when Dionysus ascended Olympus, to keep the correct number. Who was among the Twelve was not always consistent, either- some descriptions kept Hestia and left out Hades, for example. However, the following Greek goddesses and gods were those most commonly named as the Twelve. Zeus Illustration of Zeus by Paul Bransom, circa 1921 God of: Storms, fate and destiny, law and order, kingship; king of the gods. Origin: Child of Titans Kronos and Rhea Usually Depicted As: A strong, mature, kingly man with a dark beard. Symbols and Icons: Thunderbolt, eagle, oak, bull Major Relationships Married to Hera Brother of Hera, Poseidon, Hades, Demeter, and Hestia Fathered many of the Olympian gods: Athena, Persephone, Ares, Apollo and Artemis, Dionysus, and many other more minor gods and demigods. Only Ares was fathered with Hera; the rest were from extramarital dalliances. Major Attributes After Zeus threw down Kronos, he, Poseidon, and Hades drew lots to divide up the cosmos. Zeus got the sky. The earth was considered equally under the mastery of all three brothers. Zeus' primary original aspect was as a weather god; thunderbolts forged by Hephaestus were his chosen weapon. Later, he came to symbolize order, the law, and fate; he was considered more powerful than all the other gods and thus his rule went unchallenged. He had a huge number of affairs with both goddesses and mortal women, and the many children resulting from said affairs. He often took animal form to seduce mortal women. Myths Other than the story of him overthrowing the Titans, most of the best-known myths of Zeus today center around his seduction (or rape) of various women. Here are some notable ones: Leda: Leda was the wife of Tyndareus, the Queen of Sparta. However, Zeus desired her, so he transformed into a swan and either seduced or raped her, depending on the version of the story. Leda also slept with her husband the same night, and then laid two eggs. From one egg came her children with Zeus, Helen (of Troy fame) and Polydeuces (or Pollux). From the other egg came her children with Tyndareus, Castor and Clytemnestra. Europa: Zeus saw and desired the beautiful Europa, a Phoenician noblewoman. He disguised himself as a white bull in her father’s herds. When out with her handmaids, she admired the beautiful bull and climbed atop his back. He seized the opportunity to take her away, swimming across the sea to Crete. After Zeus had several children with her, she married the king of Crete. The name of the continent "Europe" comes from Europa. Danae: Danae was the daughter of a king. This king heard a prophecy that her son would overthrow him, so he locked Danae in a tower so no man could touch her. However, Zeus transformed into a shower of gold, came in through the grates of her tower, and impregnated her with Perseus. The king threw Danae and Perseus into the sea in a wooden chest. Zeus asked Poseidon to bear them to safety. Hera The Peacock Complains to Juno; Gustave Moreau, 1881 Goddess of: Marriage and childbirth, women, and the sky and stars; queen of the gods Origin: Child of Titans Kronos and Rhea Usually Depicted As: A beautiful, majestic matron wearing a crown Symbols and Icons: The peacock, the cuckoo, the pomegranate, the cow Major Relationships Married to Zeus (also his sister) Sister of Demeter, Poseidon, Zeus, Hades, and Hestia Mother of Ares, Eris, Hebe, and Eileithyia, (with Zeus) Mother of Hephaestus (without male intervention!) Major Attributes As wife of Zeus, she was queen of the Greek gods. She was undeniably powerful in her own right, but was not really considered Zeus’ equal; in myths about direct confrontations between them Zeus always emerged the victor. She was considered somewhat stubborn and quarrelsome; she and Zeus had a tumultuous relationship. She was known for tormenting Zeus’ many lovers and so had a reputation for being "jealous." Every year, she renewed her virginity by bathing in a spring at Nauplia. Myths Many of Hera’s appearances in myth revolve around her attempts to torment the lovers of Zeus and the children resulting from these unions. Heracles and the Milky Way: Hera repeatedly tormented Zeus’ child with the mortal Alcmene, Heracles. (Zeus’ attempt to placate Hera by naming the child in her honor was not successful.) She set many obstacles against him throughout his life. One notable story about Hera and Heracles was that when he was an infant, Zeus tricked Hera into breastfeeding Heracles, presenting him simply as an abandoned child. When she realized who he was, she yanked the baby from her breast, and the spray of milk that followed became the Milky Way. Lamia: Zeus took a beautiful queen of Libya as his mistress, and she bore him multiple children. Enraged, Hera killed Lamia’s children and turned her into a monster (typically part-serpent) who devours the children of others. Poseidon Cirta mosaic of Poseidon and Amphitrite, circa 315-325 God of: The sea, flood, drought, earthquakes, horses Origin: Child of Titans Kronos and Rhea Usually Depicted As: A mature, dark-bearded man with a trident Symbols and Icons: The trident, the horse, the dolphin, the bull, the tuna Major Relationships Brother of Demeter, Hera, Zeus, Hades, and Hestia Married to Amphitrite Fathered many children with various mothers; a large number of these children were monstrous in some respect or another. Major Attributes When Zeus, Poseidon, and Hades defeated their father Kronos, they drew lots on who would rule over what, and Poseidon drew the sea. He is thought to be much like the sea: capable of being both majestic, calm, and stormy by turns. Like his brother, Zeus, he was known to have many lovers. He was considered to have the power to give sailors safe passage. He is often credited with creating the horse; he rode around on the surface of the sea in a chariot pulled by magic horses. The Greeks believed that sacrificing a horse would win Poseidon’s favor. Myths Patronage of Athens: Poseidon and Athena were both in bitter competition to become the patron god of Athens when it was a newly-founded city (and before it was called Athens, of course). Athena proposed they hold a content for the patronage of the city: each would present a gift to the city and the king, Cecrops, would judge which present was best and therefore which god would be patron. Some versions of the myth have Poseidon giving the people a spring, which turned out to be saltwater and so useless. Some versions have him creating and gifting the city with the horse. Either way, Athena gave the city the olive tree, which Cecrops deemed the better gift. Athena became patron and the city was called Athens in her honor. Demeter Fresco of Demeter by Cosimo Tura, 1476-1484 Goddess of: All plants and fruit, agriculture, grain, bread, fertility, and newlyweds. Origin: Child of Titans Kronos and Rhea Usually Depicted As: A crowned, blonde, somewhat voluptuous, mature woman bearing grain. Often portrayed with her daughter, Persephone, or in a chariot drawn by horses or dragons Symbols and Icons: Corn, pigs, fruit, poppies, sheaves of wheat, the cornucopia/horn of plenty. Major Relationships Mother of Persephone (by Zeus) Sister of Hera, Zeus, Poseidon, Hades, and Hestia Major Attributes The name "Demeter" has two potential derivations; it could mean either "mother earth," or "giver of grain/barley." She was primarily a Greek goddess not just of nature but of cultivation; she taught humanity how to cultivate grain. As such she was also considered the giver of bread. Without her blessing, nothing grew and people starved. Rather than dwell in Olympus, she spent most of her time wandering the surface of the earth with her daughter, Persephone. Mother and daughter were often worshiped together, particularly as part of the Eleusinian mysteries. This was a mystery cult centered at Eleusis that promised initiates entrance into the blessed paradise Elysium in the afterlife. The contents of the mysteries were closely-guarded secrets. We have a general idea that they were primarily a ritualized presentation of the myth of Persephone, but we don’t know all the specifics. So many details of the mysteries remain a mystery to this day! Many agrarian festivals were held in her honor throughout Greece. Demeter was also a goddess of fertility, and the priestess of Demeter was responsible for explaining the duties of marriage to newlywed couples. Myths The most important myth about Demeter is the myth of the abduction of Persephone- a story that has endured in the popular imagination through the present day. The Abduction of Persephone: The god Hades wished to marry Persephone, but he knew that it was unlikely that Demeter would allow anyone to marry her daughter as it would separate the two. So he petitioned Zeus, who gave him permission to abduct Persephone. When Persephone was gathering flowers with her companions, he came forth from the earth, snatched her up onto his chariot, and descended down with his new bride into the Underworld. Demeter, distraught, searched everywhere for her daughter with the help of the goddess Hecate. But she couldn’t find Persephone anywhere on earth. In her grief, she made it so all crops failed and all vegetation withered. Eventually, the Greek god Helios told her he had seen Hades carry off Persephone. Outraged, Demeter went to Zeus to demand her daughter be returned. Zeus complied because humanity was starving, and commanded Hades to return Persephone to the surface world. Hades did return her. But before that he offered Persephone a single pomegranate seed to eat. Because she had eaten of the fruit of the Underworld, she had to return there part of every year. Thus she spends a third of every year (or half, depending on who is telling the tale) in the Underworld, and the rest of the year on the earth’s surface with her mother. This myth is used to explain the cycling of the seasons: when Persephone is above ground, Demeter is happy and things grow. When Persephone is in the Underworld, Demeter is sad and the earth is barren (so, winter). Hades 16th-century painting of Hades God of: King of the Underworld, god of death and funerals; also considered the god of the metals and riches of the earth and soil Origin: Child of Titans Kronos and Rhea Usually Depicted As: A dark-bearded, mature man; had two commonly depicted aspects: enthroned in the underworld, or pouring earthly riches from a cornucopia Symbols and Icons: Black sheep, cyprus, narcissus Major Relationships Husband of Persephone Brother of Zeus, Poseidon, Demeter, Hera, and Hestia Father of The Furies (sometimes) Major Attributes His name has two possible derivations: one meaning "he who makes invisible," and another meaning "receiver/embracer of all." He became god of the underworld when he, Poseidon, and Zeus drew lots to see who would control which realms of the cosmos. However, he was allowed to ascend Olympus at will, although he did not know what transpired on earth or on Olympus when he was in the underworld. He presided over the trials of the dead. He was considered a chthonic deity- associated with the earth and underground as opposed to the sky or sea. The Greeks considered him somewhat pitiless and he was not well-loved; unsurprising for the god of death! He was also often referred to euphemistically, with names like "Clymenus" (the illustrious) and "Eubelus" (the giver of good counsel) due to Greek superstition. He was also known as "the hidden one" because he had a helmet that made him invisible. Like Poseidon and Zeus, he had several extramarital dalliances; although of an order of magnitude less, it seems. Myths By far the most notable myth about Hades is his abduction of Persephone; see Demeter’s section above for this myth. Athena Athena by Gustav Klimt, 1898 Goddess of: wisdom and reason, battle strategy/warfare, handicrafts, weaving. Patron goddess of Athens. Origin: Was the child of Zeus and Titan Metis. Fearing his child would usurp him, Zeus consumed the pregnant Metis. Later, he endured a "splitting" headache- until Hephaestus split open Zeus’ head with an axe and the fully-formed, armor-wearing Athena emerged. Usually Depicted As: Wearing body armor with a shield and a lance; or wearing a helmet and the aegis, her cape printed with the face of Medusa. Symbols and Icons: The owl, the olive tree, the goose, the serpent Major Relationships Had a close relationship with Zeus; often cited as his favorite child Was in many ways counterparts with Hephaestus, who wished to marry her; she refused Major Attributes She represents logic and rationality to such an extent that she cannot be "afflicted by Aphrodite"- she cannot fall in love. As such, she is a sworn virgin. She is also considered to have a somewhat androgynous aspect. She has a close relationship with Zeus and was thought to sit at his right hand and give her wise counsel when occasion required. As opposed to being aligned with natural forces, Athena is primarily a goddess of civilization. She was considered a force of power and wisdom who protected the law, the state, and social institutions. In many ways she is the opposite of her fellow sworn virgin goddess Artemis. As protector of the state, she also had an aspect as a goddess of warfare and battle; she was considered the goddess of military strategy. This stands in contrast to Ares, who was the god of thoughtless battle-lust. The Greeks took it as somewhat self-evident that Athena surpassed Ares in battle. She was considered, much like Hephaestus, a great innovator and creator of many of the useful crafts used by humankind. Pretty much any carefully-designed invention or craft commonly used for human industry was thought to be inspired or created by Athena. She was notably considered the inventor of weaving. She also created the olive tree. Athena was a particularly beloved goddess by the Greeks; she had many cult sites and they often sacrificed bulls to her. Myths We've already covered how Athena became patron goddess of Athens in the Poseidon section, but there are also other notable myths about her. Arachne: Arachne was a young Greek woman who claimed that she was a better weaver than Athena herself. Insulted, Athena challenged Arachne to a weaving contest. Athena wove scenes of the gods’ glories and triumphs, while Arachne wove scenes of the gods abusing mortals. There is some variation in exactly what happened- some versions claim that Arachne’s weaving was superior, and some that Athena won. However, Athena was enraged by Arachne’s insult to the gods through her woven scenes and turned her into a spider, weaving only webs. Bonus: Want to read more about spiders? Check out our articles on myths of the camel spider and why you shouldn't fear garden spiders. Hephaestus 1497 painting of Hephaestus by Andrea Mantegna God of: Craftsmen, blacksmiths, fire, volcanoes Origin: Typically considered a child of Hera and Hera alone. She conceived him herself, but when he was born crippled, she threw him out of the heavens. He was rescued and raised by Thetis and Eurynome. He was later welcomed back to Olympus after proving his skill as a craftsman. Depicted As: A middle-aged, bearded man with the tongs and hammer of a blacksmith, usually wearing a short-sleeved tunic and cap; sometimes riding a donkey. Sometimes visibly crippled; sometimes ugly, especially in post-ancient depictions. Symbols and Icons: Hammer, anvil/tongs, axe Major Relationships In some ways a counterpart to Athena; he initially wished to marry her but she rebuffed him. Married Aphrodite when his request to marry Athena was denied. Had a somewhat contentious relationship with his mother, Hera Major Attributes Hephaestus is notable for being the only primary Greek god of Olympus with a disability. Aphrodite was not happy to be married to him and engaged in an ongoing affair with Ares. Hephaestus was the craftsman of the gods and made many of their most prized possessions, for example: Hermes’ winged sandals Aphrodite’s’ girdle The chariot of Helios The armor of achilles Hephaestus taught man the crafts associated with smithing and as such was often worshiped in tandem with Athena, who was also associated with crafting. He was also known for his healing abilities; his priests were renowned for their knowledge of healing snake bites. Myths As Hephaestus was often ridiculed and mistreated for his lameness, many of his myths are about shaming those who cross and denigrate him- even the other gods. Aphrodite and Ares: Aphrodite was married to Hephaestus, but they did not have a happy marriage. She had an ongoing affair with Ares, god of war. Helios, the Greek sun god, revealed the affair to Hephaestus when he saw the lovers cavorting together from his chariot above. Enraged, Hephaestus decided to lay a trap. He hung a fine-woven, invisible net above their trysting-place and told his wife he would be gone for some time. When Ares and Aphrodite were in flagrante delicto, the net dropped, trapping them in an amorous embrace. Hephaestus invited the gods to come view his unfaithful wife and her lover. The goddesses declined, but the men went to see. Hephaestus demanded back the bride-gifts he had paid for Aphrodite, but Zeus refused and told him they needed to work out the marital manner themselves. Ares was ordered to pay a fine to Hephaestus. None of this, of course, made Aphrodite faithful to Hephaestus. Aphrodite "The Birth of Venus" by Giorgio Vasari, 1556-1558 Goddess of: Love, passion, beauty, sex Origin: When Uranus was castrated by Kronos, his testicles were cast into the sea. Aphrodite rose from the foam that formed around the testicles. Depicted As: A beautiful, nude woman; or in a clothed, seated style similar to other Olympian goddesses Symbols and Icons: Apple, myrtle wreath, scallop shell, the dove, the swan, the rose, the pomegranate Major Relationships Unhappily married to Hephaestus Had an ongoing affair with Ares Had many children by different lovers, mortal and immortal Major Attributes "Aphros" means foam; while Aphrodite’s primary aspects were related to love and sex, she was also a goddess of the sea. She rescued shipwrecked sailors. She also guarded plants, and was (somewhat unsurprisingly) the goddess of prostitutes. In some regions she was also a Greek goddess of war and considered the lawful wife of Ares; her connection to war perhaps explains the coupling of Ares and Aphrodite throughout myth. She had a magic girdle made my Hephaestus that made the woman who wore it irresistible; she would loan it to Hera when Hera wished to recapture the attention of Zeus’ wandering eye! Unlike most of the other female gods, who tended to have a fairly limited number of lovers, Aphrodite was known for her many mortal and immortal lovers. She was known for her jealous nature; while she was very generous to her worshipers, she was spiteful to those who denied her. Myths Aphrodite myths typically concern her love affairs. Her liaison with Ares and the trap laid by Hephaestus was already described. Other than Ares, her most famous lover was Adonis. Aphrodite and Adonis: Adonis’ parentage is not consistent in myth, but in all accounts his pregnant mother was turned into a myrrh tree and he was born from the tree some time later. Aphrodite was taken with the baby and gave him into the care of Persephone. However, Persephone refused to give the child back. To solve the dispute, Zeus (or sometimes Calliope) decreed that Adonis would spend four months of the year with each goddess and the remaining four months however he chose. He decided to spend eight months of the year with Aphrodite. (It is unclear at exactly what point in the story Adonis becomes a young man and the lover of Aphrodite, but that is how he is typically depicted.) Unfortunately, Adonis is gored to death by a wild boar. In different versions of the myth, the boar is sent by a different god or goddess to take retribution against Aphrodite for some perceived wrongdoing. One of the most famous versions has her immortal lover Ares sending the boar to kill Adonis out of jealousy. Aphrodite hears Adonis’ cries and rushes to his side, where he dies in her arms. She turns his blood into the anemone flower. Adonis was actually a cult figure in ancient Greece and the subject of many mystery cults concerned with the Underworld, resurrection, and immortality. He and Aphrodite were sometimes worshiped in tandem as part of these cults. Ares Mars by Has Thoma, 19th century God of: war and battle (especially bloodlust), but also associated with courage and civil order Origin: Child of Zeus and Hera Depicted As: Either as a mature armored warrior or a nude youth, but almost always with his helmet. Symbols and Icons: Spear, woodpecker, vulture, dog, peaked warrior’s helmet Major Relationships Best-known relationship among the gods was as the lover of Aphrodite Also had many children, some by Aphrodite but most by others. Was accompanied into battle by his children with Aphrodite, Phobos and Deimos (Panic and Dread), and his sister, Eris (Strife) Major Attributes While Athena represented battle strategy and cunning, Ares represented bloodlust and battle frenzy- he enjoyed conflict for its own sake and was known to aid both sides by turns in the battles of men. In addition to battle and bloodshed, he was also said to cause plagues and epidemics. As an agent of violence and chaos, he was not well-loved by his parents or the other gods (except for by Aphrodite). Like most of the other male gods, he had many lovers, but Aphrodite was the most notable one. Because he was an agent of violence and chaos, he was not necessarily hugely popular across Greece. He was worshiped primarily in the northern parts. Additionally, the Spartans believed they were descended from him, and at a certain point in Spartan history he received human and dog sacrifices. He wore a golden helmet and bronze armor made by Hephaestus. Myths Some Ares myths have already been mentioned; he was humiliated by Hephaestus for his affair with Aphrodite, and he killed Adonis because he was jealous of Aphrodite’s love for him. But here’s one other: The Areopagus: The site where criminal trials were held was named after Ares because he was, in myth, the first being tried there. One day he came upon a son of Poseidon trying to rape his daughter, Alcippe. To protect her, he killed her assailant. Poseidon was furious and demanded justice for the death of his sons. A trial was held and twelve gods acquitted Ares, saying his violence was justified. Artemis Diana la Casadora, Pedro Lira, 19th century Goddess of: Nature, wild creatures, hunting and archery, virgins, childbirth, and witches Origin: She was a child of Zeus and Leto, delivered on the island of Delos because that was the only place that would offer Leto sanctuary from Hera’s wrath. Usually Depicted As: A girl or young woman with a bow and arrow, usually with a stag or hunting dog Symbols and Icons: Deer, cyprus, the moon, bear, palm tree Major Relationships Twin sister of Apollo Accompanied by many companions, including the Pleiades Major Attributes Her name is typically thought to mean "healthy" or "vigorous." Artemis is primarily a nature goddess and was often identified with local nature goddesses in her worship. As a young girl, she begged her father to be able to remain a virgin forever; he granted her wish. Priests and priestesses of Artemis took vows of chastity. Artemis protects women and wild animals, especially the young. She was a goddess of the natural world. In spite of her status as a virgin goddess she was also associated with childbirth. Hunting with her silver bow, she wanders the woods with her companions, who are mostly female. Some of her notable companions include the Pleiades, the seven sisters. However, several of the Pleiades did not remain virgins and ended up having children, like Maia, who bore Hermes to Zeus. She was considered responsible for the sudden deaths of girls and women, but could also protect, cure, and heal these things. Her twin brother Apollo was in many ways her counterpart; they had a close and complementary relationship. Some traditions placed them as husband and wife, but this is not the most common interpretation. Myths The most famous myth about Artemis is the myth of Actaeon. Actaeon and Artemis: The young hunter Actaeon came upon Artemis bathing naked in a woodland spring. He was so struck by Artemis’ beauty that he remained to watch and was discovered by the goddess. As punishment for his transgression, she turned him into a stag, and he was hunted down and ripped to pieces by his own hunting dogs. Apollo Rosalba Carriera, Apollo, 18th century God of: Prophecy, the sun, music, poetry, the arts, archery, healing Origin: Child of Zeus and Leto; born on Delos Usually Depicted As: A beardless, beautiful youth (naked or robed), often holding a lyre Symbols and Icons: The lyre; eagles, snakes, crows, cicadas, wolves, dolphins, ravens, the laurel tree, the number 7 Major Relationships Twin of Artemis Major Attributes Apollo was one of the most widely worshiped and beloved Greek gods of Olympus. Like many of the gods, Apollo had a somewhat dualistic aspect; he was both the patron of the most civilized arts, like music and poetry, and capable of extremely violent and barbaric acts. Apollo was a close counterpart to his sister, Artemis. While she was a goddess of wild nature, he was much more closely associated with civilization; she was connected with the moon and he with the sun; while she was thought to be responsible for the sudden deaths of women and girls, his arrows caused the sudden death of men and boys. Artemis had a silver bow, and he had a wooden one. Both gods also had a healing aspect. As a god of civilization, Apollo protects flocks and cattle and the founding of towns. Additionally, Apollo was a god of prophecy; one of the most famous oracles in Greece, the oracle at Delphi, was dedicated to him. And of course, like many of the gods, he was known for his many lovers, male and female- although he was not very lucky in love, with many of his pursuits and affairs having tragic ends. Myths Many of the myths of Apollo center around his unfortunate pursuits of women and men. Daphne: Apollo loved the beautiful Daphne, who had sworn to remain a virgin. He chased her until she could run no more. She cried out to her grandfather, river god Peneus, for aid. He turned her into a laurel tree so that Apollo could not touch her and she could remain forever a virgin. Cassandra: Apollo gave Cassandra, a princess of Troy, the gift of prophecy in an effort to win her affections. When she rejected his advances, he cursed her that no one would ever believe her prophecies. Hyacinthus: The beautiful young man Hyacinthus was one of the lovers of the god Apollo. However, the west wind, Zephyr, also loved Hyacinthus and was jealous. So one day when Apollo and Hyacinthus were taking turns throwing the discus, Zephyr blew Apollo’s discus off-course, causing it to strike and kill Hyacinthus. Apollo turned the dying man’s blood into a flower, the Hyacinth. Hermes Photo of ancient Hermes vase by Nicolas Vollmer God of: Travel and trade, eloquence and insight, luck and the unexpected, athletes, messenger of the gods, bringer of dreams Origin: Child of Zeus and Maia, one of the Pleiades Depicted As: Typically depicted with his winged sandals and hat, sometimes with a sheep on one shoulder Symbols and Icons: Winged sandals, winged helmet, caduceus (a winged staff with two snakes twined around it), rooster, tortoise, ram, hare, crocus Major Relationships In many ways, Hermes was somewhat of a loner god; he interacted with most all the gods but did not necessarily have a close association with any of them However, he did father Hermaphroditus with Aphrodite. Major Attributes "Hermes" is probably derived from "herma," the heaps of stones that indicated boundaries and marked landmarks. As the messenger god, Hermes was both a god of travel and of social communication. He protected travellers and guarded those who crossed boundaries. He had a mischievous, trickster aspect; he was the god of all communication and eloquence, whether it was honest or not. He was frequently able to get away with deception simply because he was so charming! He also guarded thieves and prostitutes. As a figure of craft and cunning, he was credited with many inventions, including the lyre, music, the alphabet, numbers, measures, weights, astronomy, combat, and gymnastics. As a messenger, he was also considered a god of diplomacy and protected embassies and diplomats. He was a god of dreams in his messenger aspect as well. Finally, he was tasked with leading the souls of the dead to the underworld, and was one of the only gods with free passage to and from there. Myths Hermes had a particularly illustrious childhood, engaging in wild feats as soon as he emerged from the womb. The Cattle of Apollo and the Lyre: The day Hermes was born, he left his cradle to look for adventure. He decided to steal 50 cows from Apollo’s herds. Using trickery and cleverness he covered all the tracks so his crime couldn’t be traced. After a long and fruitless search, Apollo finally used his own oracular powers to find Hermes. Hermes denied stealing the cows, but Apollo didn’t believe him and brought him before Zeus. Zeus was delighted with Hermes’ cleverness and did not punish him, only ordered him to return the cattle. When it came time to return the cattle, Apollo found Hermes playing a new instrument he had just made out of a turtle shell- the lyre. Apollo offered to let Hermes keep the cattle in exchange for the lyre. Hermes agreed, and the gods were friends from that moment on. Dionysus Reproduction of plate depicting Dionysus by Arthur Elam Haigh (1896) God of: wine and drunkenness, celebration and festivity, but also madness and frenzy. Origin: Child of Zeus and Semele. Considered "twice-born" because his mother died while pregnant with him after beholding the full glory of Zeus. Zeus saved the child by carrying him to term in his own thigh. Depicted As: Earlier he was portrayed as a bearded man and later as a beautiful, but somewhat androgynous, young man Symbols and Icons: Grapes, the thyrsos (a pine-cone tipped-staff), panthers and leopards, the wine cup, the ivy wreath Major Relationships Married to Ariadne, daughter of Minos, a Cretan king. Lover of Aphrodite; she bore Priapus by him Major Attributes Dionysus was connected with wine, drunkenness, festivity, fellowship, and nature. His cult was also associated with art and literature. However, there was a dark side to his worship, as he was connected also to frenzy and madness- the untamed wildness both of nature and of drink. His entourage consisted of wild spirits of fertility, like the sileni and the satyrs. He was also considered to have power as a prophetic deity and a healer of illness. In his aspect as a nature god he was the protector of trees. He was considered somewhat effeminate or androgynous in nature. The ecstatic nature of his worship attracted many female followers, but was not as popular among men, who were uncomfortable with the female wildness associated with his rites. Myths There are not a huge number of myths centered on Dionysus, but he does feature in one well-known story. King Midas: For King Midas' hospitality to Dionysus’ foster father, Silenus, Dionysus offered the king whatever boon he wished. Midas wished that everything he touched would turn to gold. Realizing that he could not eat or drink and even turning his own daughter to gold, Midas repented of his choice of gift and prayed to Dionysus to take it away. Dionysus told him to wash in the nearby river and the gift would be taken. Minor Gods As there are literally hundreds of Greek gods and goddesses, this is not a comprehensive list. But we have outlined the most notable greek gods and goddesses other than the Twelve Olympians. Atlas- Titan Who Holds Up the Sky Atlas by Guercino, 1646 Atlas was a Titan, the Son of the Titan Iapetus and the Oceanid Clymene or Asia. He was was in the Titan army that fought against Zeus and the Olympians; as punishment he was made to bear the weight of the heavens. In art he is typically depicted as a man holding up the sky or the stars Persephone- Goddess of Spring, Queen of the Underworld The Spring Witch by George Wilson, circa 1880 Persephone was the daughter of Demeter and Zeus; the story of her abduction by Hades was detailed above. Many of her attributes as a goddess revolve around this tale. Her return to the surface world at the end of winter is what caused spring to begin as her mother allowed new growth, and her journey to Hades in the autumn caused plants to wither and die as her mother killed living things in her grief. Thus she became known as a Spring goddess as well as the Queen of the Underworld. She was worshiped with her mother as part of the Eleusinian mysteries and associated with immortality because of her cyclical passage into the underworld and return to the surface world. In her dual aspect as the bringer of spring and the queen of the Underworld, she was associated with both life and death. She is known for either bestowing favors or her wrath on the many heroic visitors to the Underworld in myth. She aided Hades in cursing the souls of the dead when necessary. Sometimes she was known as the mother of the Erinyes (the Furies) with Hades, but not always. She was depicted both as a young agriculture goddess with her mother, with a torch and sheaves of wheat, and as the throned Queen of the Underworld, sometimes besides Hades. Her major symbols are the torch, wheat, and the pomegranate. Eos- Goddess of the Dawn Evelyn de Morgan, Eos, 1895 Eos, Greek goddess of the Dawn, was the child of Titans Hyperion and Thea and the sister of Helios, the sun, and Selene, the moon. She is most notable in myth for drawing the ire of Aphrodite after taking Ares as a lover. The jealous goddess cursed her with insatiable lust, leading her to kidnap a number of handsome mortals. Eros- God of Love, Passion, and Fertility Red-figure plate with Eros by Ascoli Satriano Painter, circa 340-320 BC. Courtesy of the Walters Art Museum. Eros was originally considered one of the very first Greek gods- the son of Chaos who allowed for not only love, but fertility to come into the universe. Through the power of Eros other gods were able to reproduce and the universe as we know it was arranged. In later years, Eros was demoted to a mere son of Aphrodite (with Zeus, Ares, or Hermes depending on the tale) and simply an ancillary assistant to her powers of love, sex, and fertility. Hecate- Goddess of Witchcraft Maximilin Pirner, Hecate, 1901. Hecate, daughter of Titans Perses and Asteria, assisted Demeter in her search for Persephone, lending her torches so the search could continue into the night. When Persephone was found, Hecate remained below with Persephone and became an underworld goddess. Hecate supervised religious rites, was the mistress of demons, and was the patroness of witches. She was accompanied at all times by a black cat and a black dog. Her shrines were found at crossroads, and the Greeks would lay sacrifices at crossroads during full moons to worship her. Hecate was a goddess that most Greeks worshiped specifically to avoid the misfortunes she had the power to visit upon them. Helios- God of the Sun Relief of Helios, circa 390-275 BC Helios, Greek god of the sun, was the child of Titans Hyperion and Thea and the brother of Selene, the moon, and Eos, the dawn. He was sometimes called the "All-seeing" because he was said to see all that passed on earth from his chariot that pulled the sun across the sky. Helios was sometimes equated with Apollo, who was also associated with the sun, but they did have separate identities as deities. Hestia- Goddess of the Hearth and Domesticity Hestia tapestry, 6th century Egypt Hestia was the first child of the Titans Kronos and Rhea, making her sister to Zeus, Hera, Demeter, Poseidon, and Hades. Some accounts place Hestia as one of the twelve Olympians; others say that she abdicated her place in favor of Dionysus so that the number could remain twelve. After both Poseidon and Apollo sought to marry her, Hestia petitioned Zeus to remain a virgin. He granted her request and made her the presiding figure over all sacrifices. She was worshiped mostly with a shrine in every family hearth, as opposed to publicly, but Greeks took the sacred fire of Hestia with them whenever they went to establish new settlements. As she never leaves her home in Olympus, she is also associated with rest and sanctuary. She is closely associated with the family and domesticity. Her symbols are fruit, oil, wine, and one-year-old cows. Iris- Goddess of the Rainbow, Messenger of the Gods Vase painting of Iris by the Diosphos painter, circa 500-490 BC; photo by Marie-Lan Nguyen Iris, like Hermes, was a messenger of the gods. Iris served as the messenger for the Olympians during the Titomachy- the war with the Titans. Associated with the rainbow, she could travel all the way from the heavens across the earth and into the underworld. Se was the child of Thaumus and the Oceanid Electra. Nike- Goddess of Victory Sculpture of Nike at Ephesus, photo by Laszlo Ilyes Nike, daughter of the giant Pallas and the river Styx, was the Greek goddess of victory. However, she did not have her own cult; she was primarily considered an attribute of Athena and Zeus. She was usually depicted with wings, carrying a palm branch, wreath, or staff to carry the message of victory. She later came to symbolize all kinds of success, not just martial victory. Nyx- Goddess of Nyx Nyx, Night Goddess by Gustave Moreau, 1880 Nyx, or night, was one of the four original forces that emerged from Chaos. Alone and with various partners, she bore many deities who functioned as the most primordial of forces. She bore Aether (Brightness) and Hemera (Day) with Erebus (Darkness). Her children that she bore alone included Hypnos (Sleep), Thanatos (Death), Geras (Old Age), the Moirai (the Fates, sometimes said to be borne with Hades), Nemesis (Retribution), Eris (Strife), and the Oneiroi (Dreams). While she was not widely worshiped, her great power was acknowledged; it was said that even Zeus feared her power and majesty. Pan- God of Fertility, Nature, Shepherds, and Goatherds Painting of Pan, Arnold Bocklin, 1864-1865 The child of Hermes and Dryope, Pan was born with the horns, legs, and ears of a goat. When he was born, his mother was so alarmed by his animalistic appearance that she ran away screaming- hence the term "panic." Pan was a god of untamed nature and lusty fertility. He was known for his many amorous pursuits and his pipe-playing ability. Interestingly, many of his goatlike characteristics later became associated with Christian conceptions of the Devil! Selene- Goddess of the Moon Albert Aublet, Selene, 1880 Selene was the Greek goddess of the moon, worshiped primarily at the new and full moons. She was the child of Titans Hyperion and Thea and sister of Helios and Eos. Other than her aspect as moon goddess, Selene is known primarily for her relationship with her mortal lover Endymion, her sleeping prince, who wakes only when she visits him and so never ages or dies. Selene is typically represented as a woman crowned with the crescent moon, driving a chariot. Themis- Goddess of Justice, Wisdom, and Divine Law School of Marcello Bacciarelli, early 18th century, Allegory of Justice- Themis Themis, a child of Uranus and Gaea, was Zeus’ second consort before he married Hera; with him she bore the Horae (the goddesses of the seasons and time). Sometimes the Moirai (the fates) and the Hesperides are also listed as children of Themis and Zeus. As the personification of divine law, Themis was fairly widely worshiped in Greece. She was considered a goddess of order who supervised rituals and ceremonies. She was also connected with prophecy and oracles. Themis is typically depicted as a serious woman carrying scales. 3 Famous Greek Goddess Groups Many minor Greek deities were conceived of as groups of beings, usually goddesses who were sisters. While this is not a comprehensive list, we have identified some of the most important groups of Greek goddesses here. The Furies- Goddesses of Vengance Megaera, Tisiphone, and Alecto by Gustave Dore The Furies (or the "Erinyes," the angry ones) were Greek goddesses of vengeance, possibly identified as personified curses or the ghosts of the murdered. Sometimes they are described as children of Gaia and Uranus who sprang up from the blood of Uranus’ severed genitals, while in other tellings they are the daughters of Nyx and Hades. They reside in the underworld, but pursue the wicked across the surface of the earth. They could torment an entire community for an unpunished crime. They were usually depicted as grim young women wearing black mourning attire. It was only later that the number and identity of the individual furies was established. There were thought to be three: Alecto ("unceasing in anger") Tisiphone (avenger of murder") Megaera ("jealous") Due to Greek superstition, they were often referred to euphemistically as the Eumenides ("the kind ones") or the Semnai Theai ("venerable goddesses.") The Muses- Goddesses of Art and Science The Dance of the Muses by Joseph Paelinck, 1832 The muses, daughters of Zeus and the Titan Mnemosyne ("memory"), were the group of Greek goddesses considered responsible for artistic (and sometimes scientific) inspiration. The were the patronesses of poets, artists, musicians, dancers, seekers of knowledge, and so on. They were led by Apollo and associated with wells and springs. The muses were unmarried but various muses gave birth to many famous mythic figures, like Orpheus, Hyacinthus, and the Sirens. In some early accounts there are only three muses, but the standard number is nine. While the Greeks would have primarily considered the muses a unit, the Romans ascribed specific artistic and scientific domains to each muse, although not in a standardized way. Clio, "the proclaimer"- history Euterpe, "the well-pleasing"- tragedy or music/flutes/lyric poetry Thalia, "the blooming"- comedy Melpomene, "the songstress"- tragedy and lyre playing Terpsichore, "delighting in the dance"- lyric poetry, dancing, and/or flute playing (origin of the word "terpsichorean"- pertaining to dancing) Erato, "the lovely"- lyric and love poetry Polyhymnia, "she of the many hymns"- sacred poetry, or mimicry, or dancing, or geometry Urania, "the heavenly"- astronomy Calliope, "she of the beautiful voice"- heroic or epic poetry; most notable of the nine muses The Fates- Goddesses of Destiny The Three Fates, Bernardo Strozzi, before 1664 Goddesses of: Human destiny About These Goddesses: These Greek goddesses, known as the Moirai, were considered daughters of Nyx or, less frequently, daughters of Zeus and Themis. They determined mortals' lifespans and their shares of misery and suffering and were imagined as three very old women who quite literally spun the thread that made up individual human destiny: Clotho, "spinner"- spun the thread of human fate Lachesis, "allotter"- dispensed the thread Atropos, "inflexible"- cut it (causing death) Greek Gods Family Tree Below see the family tree of the main Olympian Greek gods and goddesses as it is most commonly understood today. However, it’s important to emphasize that the relationships between the gods were not static and shifted over time, sometimes dramatically- as we see with Eros, who was originally considered one of the original children of Chaos and later became a mere son of Aphrodite, no longer one of the primordial forces that shaped the initial universe. On this Greek gods family tree, a single arrow shows offspring, with branching arrows representing siblings. A double line bond means a partnership of marriage and/or children. The pink boxes indicate the Twelve Olympians. The Worship of the Greek Goddesses and Gods Greek worship involved rites, oracles, sacrifices, and festivals. The most formal elements of worship were place-based: gods were worshiped at their own particular temples and sacred sites through specific rites and rituals. Priests (and/or priestesses) to a particular god would oversee the rites associated with that god, which often involved animal sacrifice and the pouring of wine (the libration). Priests and priestesses also interpreted oracles at sacred oracle sites like Delphi. Interestingly, many priestesses either had to be virgins or past menopause. Outside of more formal rites, Greek citizens also offered sacrifices to particular gods to give thanks or to invoke their protection. They might also pray to the appropriate god for a particular concern or issue, and make some kind of offering if they felt the prayer was answered. The other main component of Greek worship was the festival. Festivals centered around music, theatre, and sports (like the Olympics!) were held to honor the gods. Those are some general trends in worship. However, it is difficult to make absolute statements on exactly how specific gods were worshiped, because a lot of worship was very localized. Different city-states had their own preeminent deities, and might worship particular deities in different ways. Furthermore, ideas about the gods and how they were related to each other, especially in terms of marriage and parentage, were constantly shifting over time. Newer gods (for example, from neighboring countries) were often incorporated into the pantheon, and some gods would be combined or fade in eminence over time. Nonetheless, the main figures of the Greek pantheon and the mythology surrounding them were clearly well-developed by around the 8th B.C., when Homer crafted the Iliad and the Odyssey. However, it’s worth noting that just because a god was included in the twelve Olympians does not mean they were widely worshiped- for example, there was very little worship of Hades. Conversely, some very widely worshiped figures were not in the main Olympian pantheon, like Themis. Due to close contact between the Greeks and Romans, the Roman pantheon was very influenced by Greek mythology, and many Roman gods took on the attributes and myths of similar Greek gods. Some Greek gods are also worshiped today, as part of Neo-pagan religions. The theater was often part of religious festivals in ancient Greece. Greek Goddesses and Gods Today The Greek gods continue to be a source of fascination and inspiration in all areas of human endeavor. There have been many operas, ballets, and theater productions based on Greek myth throughout all of history. The Greek gods were a huge inspiration to Romantic and Neoclassical artists and poets. More recently, the Greek gods have inspired tons of movies, TV shows, books, comic books, and video games. Some notable pop-culture works that have borrowed or adapted Greek mythology include: The 1997 Disney movie Hercules TV show Xena: Warrior Princess The 1981 and 2010 films Clash of the Titans Wonder Woman comics The Percy Jackson book series by Rick Riordan The God of War video game franchise Additionally, many astronomical bodies like asteroids and asteroid belts, moons, stars, planets, and comets are named for figures of Greek and Roman mythology. Most of the planets in our own solar system are named for Roman deities, but many of the moons and asteroids are named for Greek deities. For example, the Demeter asteroid belt, Themis, a moon of Saturn, and Eris, a dwarf planet. L. Calà §ada and Nick Risinger, artistic rendering of dwarf planet Eris The Greek Gods and Goddesses: Key Points to Remember Unlike modern gods, who are generally thought of as benevolent and all-knowing, Greek gods personified the forces that organized and drove the world. As such, they were just as often petty and violent as they were just and magnanimous within Greek myth. Within myth, the Olympian gods rose to power after a war with the Titans. The Twelve Olympians were: Zeus, king of the gods and god of storms Hera, wife of Zeus, goddess of marriage and childbirth, the heavens Poseidon, god of the sea Demeter, goddess of agriculture and fertility Hades, god of the underworld Athena, goddess of wisdom, craftsmanship, war Hephaestus, god of smiths and fire Aphrodite, goddess of love, passion, and fertility Ares, god of war and battle frenzy Artemis, goddess of the hunt and nature Apollo, god of prophecy, the arts, music, and healing Hermes, messenger of the gods, god of travelers Dionysus, god of wine, celebration, and frenzy In addition to the Twelve Olympians, there were also hundreds of other gods worshiped throughout Greece. Some were mostly considered aspects or minions of more major deities, while others had robust cults of their own. What's Next? The Greek gods and goddesses may have gotten up to some crazy shenanigans, but they served as inspiration for religions that followed. Learn about the 20th-century's Aleister Crowley and the multiple religions he was involved in here. What is agnosticism and what does it mean to be agnostic? Find out with our guide to the origin of the term and how agnosticism is practiced.

Quotation Marks, Apostrophes, and Other Raised Symbols

Quotation Marks, Apostrophes, and Other Raised Symbols Quotation Marks, Apostrophes, and Other Raised Symbols Quotation Marks, Apostrophes, and Other Raised Symbols By Mark Nichol This post details the function of various symbols that appear the top of a line of type to communicate additional information about the text. Apostrophe The apostrophe signals that, depending on usage, one or more letters are missing or are being added to perform a grammatical function. An apostrophe marks omission of one or more letters (as in the contraction of cannot to can’t or, in an extreme case, of the substitution of fo’c’stle for forecastle) marks possessive case (as in â€Å"John’s hat† or â€Å"the girls’ smiles†) marks plurals of individual characters, as in â€Å"dot the i’s and cross the t’s.† Quotation Marks The primary use of double quotation marks (called, in British English, inverted commas) is to indicate direct quotation of spoken or written content. (Single quotation marks are used only to frame quotations within quotations, as in this section of this post, or in technical usage such as in linguistics texts.) A self-contained quotation is capitalized (â€Å"She asked, ‘Where are you going?’†) A partial quotation is not capitalized when it is syntactically integrated into the framing sentence (â€Å"He explained that they ‘had some issues to work out.’†) They also frame meanings and definitions (â€Å"That sign means ‘Stop’†; â€Å"The definition of insanity is ‘Doing the same thing over and over again and expecting different results’†). Quotation marks are sometimes employed as scare quotes and sneer quotes, which emphasize ironic usage (â€Å"After the bombing, no one remained alive in the village to celebrate its ‘pacification’†) or signal that a writer is using but not endorsing a term (â€Å"Beware executives who want to ‘leverage’ everything†). They are unnecessary when naming something, even when the term is slang used for a meaning other than its original sense (â€Å"The process of extracting digital content is called ripping†). Use of so-called preceding a term in scare quotes is redundant. Avoid use of quotation marks to set off clichà ©s (â€Å"This behavior creates lethal ‘blind spots’ in an organization†). Quotations also set off titles of components of compositions when referred to elsewhere than in the composition itself, such as references to the following: newspaper or magazine articles titles of chapters in a book titles of short stories or short poems names of episodes of television series titles of songs titles of speeches In addition, quotations frame a term consisting of more than one word when the term refers to itself rather than to the concept the term represents (â€Å"What does â€Å"net neutrality† mean?); italicize single words used as words (â€Å"The word strike can be used as a noun, a verb, or an adjective†). Avoid using straight quotation marks (), which have a plain, primitive appearance. (But see below.) Prime A prime is a symbol similar to an apostrophe or a close quotation mark that in technical usage follows a number to denote a unit; in lay content, a single prime (†²) most frequently represents feet or minutes, and a double prime (†³) indicates inches or seconds (â€Å"The deck is 10†² 6†³ by 12†²Ã¢â‚¬ ) or minutes (â€Å"The duration was 3†² 36†³Ã¢â‚¬ ). (There are also triple and quadruple primes.) Primes are sometimes indicated by simple straight quotation marks ( and ). These symbols (which originated as miniature Roman numerals I, II, and III) are best reserved for informal use or in practical content such as text about woodworking, or in charts or tables. Otherwise, spelling out the terms the primes represent is recommended. Ordinal Indicator An ordinal indicator is a superscripted, or raised, number, letter, or other character used in text as a cross-reference to a footnote or endnote or a list of referenced sources. These are employed, especially in academic texts, to direct readers to additional information that would be distracting if embedded in the running, or regular, text. When encountering an ordinal indicator, readers can ignore it or can direct their attention to the cross-referenced material and then return to the position of the indicator and resume reading the running text. Superscript characters are located directly after the pertinent word, phrase, or sentence in the text, though they follow, rather than precede, punctuation (with the exception of a dash, which the indicator should precede). Degree Symbol The degree symbol ( °), following a number, most often represents degrees of arc or of temperature, though it has other specialized functions. Usually, the symbol is appropriate only for technical usage or for charts and tables and should be replaced by degrees in lay content. Asterisk An asterisk (*)- the word is from the Greek word for â€Å"little star†- has various functions in scientific disciplines, but in general writing, it is used as an ordinal indicator when, because of the small number of notes in a text, a sequential system of numbers or letters are not required. (However, sometimes, when there are a handful of references requiring such indicators but numbers or letters are not used, other symbols such as the dagger and double dagger are employed in a traditional hierarchy.) Asterisks also take the place of bullets, frame a word or phrase to represent italic or boldface type when it is not available, and appear in a group of three centered on a page to denote a major narrative transition. Bullet A bullet is a typographic mark, usually a solid dot but often represented by other characters, used in a vertical list when numbers are not appropriate because the list is not hierarchical or sequential. (See this post and others at DailyWritingTips.com for more information about vertical lists.) Ditto Mark A ditto mark is a close quotation mark used to represent a repeated number, word, or phrase, as in an inventory list in which the quantity of one item is identical to that of another item. It is generally not used in formal writing; in informal usage, the word ditto is shorthand for â€Å"the same,† as in the declaration â€Å"I’m hungry,† and the response â€Å"Ditto,† indicating that the respondent is also hungry. Dagger A dagger is a typographical mark resembling a knife pointing downward, or a Christian cross. The dagger, and the double dagger, often appearing more as a plus sign stacked atop another, are sometimes used to signal a footnote when an asterisk has already been employed. The daggers also have distinct uses in notation for various disciplines and pastimes. Intellectual-Property Symbols The symbols  ©,  ®, â„  , and â„ ¢ denote specific rights to intellectually property, including compositions, brand names, and the like. They are employed in commercial communications to represent that the users are honoring the right of the copyright holder or trademark holder, for example, to claim the intellectual property, but they are not required when mentioning, for example a brand name. Publishers are required, however, to obtain permission to reproduce, for example, an excerpt from a song’s lyrics. Want to improve your English in five minutes a day? Get a subscription and start receiving our writing tips and exercises daily! Keep learning! Browse the Style category, check our popular posts, or choose a related post below:25 Subordinating ConjunctionsThe Many Forms of the Verb TO BEMankind vs. Humankind