Racism A Social Construct - 1593 Words

As I have lived most all of my life here in NYC, I have been affected by implicit biases, prejudices and discrimination based on my race, however my socioeconomic class, gender and my sexual orientation are significant forces of my social identity that not only define who I am, but are interconnected in the way I am and have been oppressed. Albeit racism has an impact on all of our lives in the US, however; it’s the intersectionality of the other social identity forces that when they are interacting with racism, they manifest many forms of social oppression. My social identity is that of an African-American, married lesbian woman. Racism is a social construct that has serious impact on many people’s lives. Heterosexism, also a social construct and racism contribute to the ever widening inequality gap. To slow sown or change the gap growth, policies would have to be imposed that would be specific to gender diversity and equality. Racism is structurally embedded in many institutions, but so does heterosexism as well. They may not be overtly visible, however when one is identified as homosexual, [s]he may become under attack from by the same institutions that are in place to protect in our society. . For many, the social construct of racism is created from a visible trait or characteristic that is visible and obvious, however sexual orientation can be hidden or unspoken. Anti –gay rhetoric, attitudes and behaviors, which in turn, leads to â€Å"patterns ofShow MoreRelatedRacism : A Historical And Social Construct1815 Words   |  8 PagesRacism: A Historical and Social Construct in America â€Å"Racism is the belief that characteristics and abilities can be attributed to people simply on the basis of their race and that some racial groups are superior to others. Racism and discrimination have been used as powerful weapons encouraging fear or hatred of others in times of conflict, [or] war, the fight for civil rights, and during economic downturns† (Shah). Racism has evolved throughout the years, yet still remains pervasive and highlyRead MoreInequality: Race And Racism. The Race Is A Social Construct1371 Words   |  6 PagesInequality: Race and Racism The race is a social construct that has real life consequences. The race is a fiction created by the dominant part of the society in order to legitimize their supremacy on those they wish to regulate. Racism: a term that was first coined by the Nazis in the 1930s in their attempt to make Germany clean of Jews . The race is a social construct that has both biological and cultural aspects but not based on scientific truths. The origin of the racial differences can be trackedRead More Racism: A Historical and Social Construct in America Essay2951 Words   |  12 PagesRacism, will it ever end? The answer is probably not. The United States of America was set up on the basis of race. Even many years ago European settlers looked down upon the Native Americans as inferior. Years later in today’s modern society, racism still exists, although we may not fully realize it. Many people are not aware of how much racism still exists in our schools workforces, and anywhere else where social lives are occurring. Using our sociological imagination, we are capable of applyingRead MoreSocial Construction Of Race And Gender1529 Words   |  7 PagesSocial Construction of Race and Gender, Patriarchy and Prejudice and Discrimination in the Society Social construct may be defined as the social mechanism or a category which has been created by the society. It may either be a perception which is created by an individual or an idea which is constructed as a result of the culture. The present society has created a large number of constructs which are not good. In this paper, the discussion will be done on the social construction of raceRead MoreThe And Race Expert Dr. Beverly Daniel Tatum1312 Words   |  6 Pagesauthor engages her readers in conversations about race she has had in her personal life. In part one of the book, Tatum defines terms in order to understand racism. The words prejudice and racism are two of her most defined words. She details how they distinguish from one another. Being prejudice, which is also consequence of cultural racism, means having preconceived assumption or an opinion with little to no knowledge. Which is basically stereotyping of cultural practices. This is where imagesRead MoreA Conversation about Race: A Documentary by Craig Bodeker Essay949 Words   |  4 Pages In the movie, Mr. Bodeker attempts to debunk racism. The film centers on interviews of people in Denver, Colorado who answered a Craigslist posting entitled â€Å"Ending Racism Now† as well as people interviewed on street corners presumably at random. Mr. Bodeker presents clips of these interviews and provides narration. According to Mr. Bodeker, the film’s purpose is to expose the myth of racism and show how the White race suffers from reverse racism and double st andards (Dispatch Inc, 2013). TheRead MoreRacism Racism1172 Words   |  5 PagesIn the article, â€Å"Racism is real, race is not,† the author Adam Hochman argues that while racism is a very real and terrible system within our global society, the concept of race is not real and cannot be proven as such either biologically or socially speaking. Hochman states that though racism has emerged from the categorization of populations based upon physical attributes, race itself does not truly exist. Furthermore, he purports that race has no biological foundation; though most people believeRead MoreRace: The Start of It All779 Words   |  4 Pagesare, firstly, the biological and scientific explanations of racial subdivision (Andreasen, Templeton, MacEachern, Rushton, Hall); secondly, the social and cultural aspect of race and how this contrasts with the biological definition (CLR); and finally, the political side to race and how it is debated that race ultimately emerged from Capitalism and that racism can be a bolished with the implementation of socialism(Cohen, Bannerji, C.L.R). Despite the wide variety of arguments surrounding the tabooRead MoreRace Is A Biological Reality Or A Social Construct?1566 Words   |  7 PagesI used to think that race was a social construct more of a biological reality until I read all these articles. They changed my perspective and I have come to realize different things. My opinion is now divided into two; I am in that middle point where I can see both ways of the argument as valid and reasonable and agree with both. First, I will explain why I think it is a biological reality, then, I will explain why it can also be a social construct, and lastly how have these debates shaped the viewsRead MoreAnalysis Of The Book Five Faces Of Oppression By Charles W. Mills1050 Words   |  5 Pageshave the power to set rules. Iris Marian Young discusses oppression brought on by racism having five faces that constructs a society and shapes an individual in the book â€Å"Five Faces of Oppression† While some might say it is a social construct, it does not exist and if it does it is only meant to encourages people of a lower class to work harder, racism is a form of discrimination and needs to be put to an end. Racism causes inequality and oppresses certain groups of people. It leads a belief that

What Is A Worldview - 1098 Words

What is a worldview? What is biblical worldview? How are they different from each other? Worldview implies the beginning of how people view and make sense of life and the world. People with a biblical worldview, also known as a Christian worldview, believes that their main reason for living life on earth is to love and serve God, as well as teach others about Him. The Bible teaches us about four topics and how they affect people’s worldview. The Bible is very important to read because it can help the reader learn more about God as well as learning the truth about what God says. Reading the Bible will also help answer questions that people might be wondering and wanting to know for a long time. Genesis 1-11 and Romans 1-8 teach us about the natural world, human identity, human relationships, and civilization. Genesis 1-11 answers many questions that people have about the natural world, especially in the first two chapters. Genesis clearly states that God created all things. He created the earth, man, animals, plants, and all other living things on earth. These scriptures explain how God created the world in six days and, on the seventh day, He rested from the work that was done. Then, â€Å"God blessed the seventh day and sanctified it, because in it He rested from all His work which God had created and made† (Genesis 2:3 NASB). He did not create anything else on the seventh day but instead rested. The Bible then goes on to discredit the theory of evolution by saying, â€Å"The earthShow MoreRelatedWhat Is A Worldview?1095 Words   |  5 PagesPart 1: What is a worldview? Webster’s New World College Dictionary simply defines a worldview as a noun which means the way someone thinks about the world (Agnes, 1999). Essentially, a worldview is a model of how a person views reality. It consists of attitudes and ideas about our lives and the world around us. Worldviews are molded by our backgrounds, life experiences, values instilled in us by our parents and education. In the context of religion, a worldview is an ideology of how one understandsRead MoreWhat Makes A Worldview?1813 Words   |  8 PagesA worldview is the philosophy or belief of an individual in regards to how he or she answers the following: what prime reality is, who or what created humans and the universe (if they were even created), what makes someone a human, where do humans go when they die (if they go anywhere), what the purpose of a human is, if Truth is something that exists, and what morality should be (how humans should act what is good or evil) (Vidal 2). There are se veral types of worldviews that people have trustRead MoreWhat Defines Your Worldview? Essay857 Words   |  4 PagesHow you define your worldview is how you see the world through your eyes. Everyone has a different worldview and different components to make their worldview. The three components that make up my worldview are God, knowledge, and ethics, because they shaped my thoughts, experiences, education, and my life decisions. The basic idea of whether there is a God or not is very abstract. It is impossible to prove that no God exists and it is for that reason that it is not considered a scientific conceptRead More What is Worldview? Essay example1024 Words   |  5 Pages After reading the fourth chapter heading of Consider, the first definition of worldview that came to my mind was â€Å"view of the world† just from a literary perspective. The co-authors defined worldview as â€Å"a framework a person brings to decision-making† (Weider Gutierrez, 2011, p.51). Everyone has a worldview with main characteristics that are ever changing. Different sources influence this framework such as parenting, friendship, telecommunication or internet media, educational and religiousRead MoreThe Christian Worldview And What Impacts Those Beliefs Have On My Own Worldview1290 Words   |  6 Pagesessential elements of the Christian worldview. God is the largest element due to His place as the foundation of the power and influence. God created humanity and allowed for their fall. He positioned Jesus Christ to save humanity from itself, satisfy divine judgment, and to reconcile their relationship with God. This paper will explain how each component is essential to the Christian worldview and what impacts those beliefs have on my own worldview. God The Christian worldview revolves around God. In theRead MoreWorldview Is What You Think About The World975 Words   |  4 PagesWhat is Worldview? Worldview is what you see and think about the world. So it would depend on the person on what they think about the world since everyone is different. It is what you believe of what you have heard and would take it to heart of what you believe. For example in the book called Finding Your Worldview: Thinking Christianly about the World, it gives an example of different color lens. When you give others a different color lens each of them is going to be seeing it differently andRead MoreWhat Is Puberty? : A Critical Period Of Life And Worldview845 Words   |  4 PagesWhat is Puberty? Puberty refers to the adolescent physiological development and psychological development period of rapid change, the transition from childhood period to adulthood; a critical period of life and worldview is gradually formed. Usually is after the child 10 years old. In the transition to adult sexual development, performance, body, and an important period of heart full development characterize sexual maturity. Sexual maturity is the core of puberty. The main changes of puberty canRead MoreMoral Relativism And The Biblical Worldview Of What Is Right And Wrong950 Words   |  4 PagesMoral relativism is the philosophy that moral or ethical propositions do not represent moral truths, but are effected by the environment in person’s life. Christians have a worldview that believes otherwise based on the biblical worldview of what is right and wrong proposed by James Sire. Issues that are ethically questionable but not specifically banned in Leviticus, or in the Bible in general, such as gambling, drinking alcohol, and divorce are examples of how even seemingly unclear topics areRead MoreNaturalism And What This Worldview Teaches About The Value Of Life1380 Words   |  6 Pages Lets take a look at naturalism and what this worldview teaches about the value of life. If one holds consistently to this worldview, there will be no value or purpose to life. He will have no explanation for why we humans are here. In fact, he will hav e no explanation for why any maternal thing is here. Humans and other material things would be on the same level. We all are here by chance. We have no reason to be here and there is no purpose for our existence. Humans would not be anymore more specialRead MoreWhat Ways Has Colonization Impacted On A M Ä€ Ori Worldview?2093 Words   |  9 PagesWith particular regard to education, in what ways has colonisation impacted on a MÄ ori worldview? Introduction Colonialism and imperialism are two old terms that scaffold people’s thoughts about the systemic exploitation of environmental or natural resources in other lands. It is used to refer to European people, as the imperialists and colonialists, as they made expeditions throughout the world to find new lands and natural resources from the 1500s onwards (Taketani, 2003). Colonialism and imperialism

Contemporary Strategy Management

Question: Analyse the strategic issues of the Vodafone Company that is the leading company in mobile communications. Answer: 1. Introduction Vodafone Group PLC is the worlds leading mobile telecommunication company that is operating network in more than 26 countries as well as has partner network with more than 50 countries around the world with significant presence in Europe, the Middle East, Africa, Asia pacific and the United State (Vodafone, 2016). The company was formed as subsidiary of Radal electronic PLC in 1908 and was established to explore the opportunity of the new cellular technology for wireless communication. Furthermore, the companys strategy is focusing on international market and expand its brand precent around the world. The organisation has been managed successfully over 4 CEO with Vittorio Colao who is the fourth CEO and current CEO to manage the company. The main aim of the report is to analyse the strategic issues of the Vodafone Company that is the leading company in mobile communications. The main problem that the company is facing is with maintaining the profit of the company. The main aim of the company recently is to move the strategies to improve the profitability of the firm instead of growth. The objective is to manage international strategies in order increase the global network. The report critically evaluates the case study on Vodafone 2012: Rethinking international strategy. Analysing the case study the author answers the questions such as benefits of international scope in wireless telecomm. The report gives advice to Vodafone on its international strategy as to the business on which Vodafone should divest and invest (Eden and Ackermann 2013). This report is conducted in the purpose of identifying strategic issues or problems that Vodafone is faced which likely to affect the organisation international performance as well as analysis and evaluate each problem in detail and give recommendation for Vodafone to have a better improvement in its strategy and performance in international market. Colao the new CEO of Vodafone company aims at improving the profit condition of the company and expanding the business in the international market. It aims at increasing the benefit that the company can get from its international scope. The organization has been managed successfully over four CEO with Vittorio Colao being the fourth and the current CEO to manage the company. Furthermore, the companys strategy is focusing on international market and expands its brand percent around the world. 2. Identification strategic issues and problems The main benefits of expanding business in international market are that it helps in creating differentiated product giving advantage to the company. The other benefits of international scope and providing its service to other countries are to offer seamless roaming service. It also allows flexibility of the promotional ideas. It also allows innovation of new products. The main benefit of international scope in wireless telecom is competitive advantage, product differentiation, economies of scale, risk management and technological change. Hence in order to grab these opportunities and expand its business in international market the company needs to identify the international strategic issues and problems. It should then aim at solving these issues for the benefit of the company in the international market (Gamble and Thompson 2014). The number of competitors for the wirelesses communication is rising in the international market that is making it essential for the company to adopt strategies that will lead in international integration. To reach to top position in the international market it is essential for the company to review its international strategies for the benefit of the company. The main competitors of Vodafone Company are ATT, China mobile and Nippon Telegraph and telephone. To maximize profit, gaining competitive advantage is essential so that the company is able to create a unique brand name to build customer loyalty (Ghezzi 2013). The strategic issues and problem which listed below are exist in Vodafones current situation and implementation. In order to improve the company international performance, these issues need to take into account to have better strategy and development. 3.1 Differences in customer preferences technology development, and technology in operating region The main strategic issues occurred in Vodafone international strategy (One Vodafone), which leads One Vodafone strategy fail to run and operate globally, are the differences in culture, technology, and technology development. As One Vodafone strategy are trying to use the single technology platform in the market that the company enters and operates. Particularly, the difference in technology development, technology, and customer preferences in two markets, including Japan, The US have made Vodafone fail to run and manage its strategy successfully. The main strategic issue that affects the companys growth in the global market is the differences in the culture of the people. The main aim of Colao should be to deal with the differences in consumer preferences in order to levy its strategy successfully. The main issue is differences in the technological culture between the countries that the company was not being able to handle. , The US have made Vodafone fail to run and manage its strategy successfully (Galliers and Leidner 2014). 3.2 Vodafone has not manage its portfolio effectively (lack of control over its subsidiaries) Strategic issues that exist in Vodafone international strategy (One Vodafone), which leads Vodafone to not manage its international portfolio effectively, are Vodafone lack of control over its subsidiaries in the US, Japan and France market. Although Vodafone has holding minority of stake of Verizon wireless (45 %) in the US market and SFR (44%) in the France market, those two company are not adapted Vodafone while operating in the market. It has shown that Vodafone has not leverage its resources to expand its global presence. The main strategic issue that affects the companys growth in the global market is the differences in the culture of the people. The main aim of Colao should be to deal with the differences in consumer preferences in order to levy its strategy successfully. The main issue is differences in the technological culture between the countries that the company was not being able to handle. , The US have made Vodafone fail to run and manage its strategy successfully (Frynas and Mellahi 2015). 3.3 Vodafone is slow in responding to industry evolution (changing industry evaluation) Vodafone is slowing to respond the market trend due to its mobile focus only strategy. According to (Grant 2013, p. 690) a key market trend was the integration of fixed and mobile communication through bundled offering to customer. While most of domestic focus operator offered quadruple play bundles including comprising fixed and mobile telephony, broadband internet access, and television services, Vodafone is slow to response in this trend and has no strategy for convergence. Furthermore, Vodafone total communication strategy is considered slow reaction to the market trend as they was not able to effectively provide full value to customer in term of bundle offering of mobile and fixed line communication. Due to the industry evolution, handsets market with their software such as Apple (IPhone, IPad), RIM (Blackberry) has shift to be the key player in the industry. However, Vodafone was unable to distributes iPhone or offer their service to iPhone user until 2008. Furthermore, the growing dominant of Apple in mobile internet access meaning that they dominant supply wireless application will limit the value Vodafone can offer to their customer in term of wireless application (Reddy et al. 2014). To improve its international business performance to maximize its profit is that Vodafone can expand its scope and can divest its business into entertainment market. The company should also concentrate on investing in joint venture with the local service provider. Colaos strategy was to expand the business in the market where Vodafone lacked a controlling stakes such as Japan, India and other countries. It is essential for Vodafone to increase its pace of work. It is slow in responding to industry evolution. It also has lack of control of businesses in its international portfolios such as United States and France (Ghezzi et al. 2014). 4. Analysis and evaluation The analysis of the case study shows that the strategy put forth by Colao ahs helped Vodafone company increase its growth. It has reinforced its growth as the worlds most international telecommunication provider. The main problem with Vodafone is to maintain and achieve competitive advantage. The main strategy of Vittorio Colao was to increase and improve the customer value by providing them satisfactory products and reducing the cost of production. The second aim was to strengthen the capital discipline (Grant 2015). 4.1. Difference in customer preferences, technology, and technology development Competitive advantages within international content analysis framework (appendix) are going to use in order to analyse Vodafone current issues and thus to help Vodafone to re identify its competitive advantage in the international market that they are enter and operate, especially Japan and the US market. According to Grant (2013, p 319), competitive advantage in the international content analysis framework helps the organisation to understand how competitive advantage is achieved in the international market when the organisation match its internal strength in resources and capabilities. Moreover, the framework also points out that gaining the competitive advantage in the international market depends on not only firm resources but also the national environment that the firm enters to. Firstly, in relation to Vodafone resources and capabilities in the US and Japan market, technology is the main concern that Vodafone need to take into consideration. One Vodafone strategy is to standard ize the technology and to try to use that same technology platform in every market they are entering, however, difference in technology platform in Japan and The US market have made One Vodafone fail to run effectively and thus Vodafone doesnt achieve the competitive advantage in those market. According to Grant (2013, p. 684), Japan and the US used cellular wireless technologies that differed from the GSM European standard that are used by Vodafone across its other market. For example: Verizon Wireless (the US) used CDMA, which was incompatible with GSM that is used in European. Furthermore, the industry environment is another factors that to evaluate whether the organisation can achieve competitive advantage in the international market or not. In case of Vodafone, entering to the market which have a higher or lower national capacity in technology such as the US, and Japan have made Vodafone fail to achieve the competitive advantage in those market. According to (Grant 2013, p.684) Japan regarded as the worlds advanced market, adopting the wireless technology communication at least two year earlier than Euro. Thus, entering in to the market which have a higher technology capacity like Japan and tried to standardise Vodafone technology and run globally strategy are fail to run or operate. For example : with development of technology in Japan, introducing Vodafone global handset in these market made the users are not satisfy with the technology due to the phone were consider technology backward. On the hands, the US market is considered as slow development in technology which are laggard in adoption 3G wireless technology as well as multiple, incompatible, wireless standard have again pointed out that Vodafone are not able use the same technology platform to operated globally. Besides, trying to standardlise the technology and entering in the market which have higher or lower technology development like US and Japan also made Vodafone fail achieve competitive a dvantage in those market. 4.2 Vodafone has not manage its portfolio effectively (lack of control over its subsidiaries) Initially, the main issues occurred in Vodafone strategy, which lead Vodafone not manage its portfolio effectively, are Vodafone lacked of control over its business in the US, Poland, India, France. According to Vodafone annual report (2011, p 26), Vodafone possess 45% ownership of Verizon Wireless (US), 24,4 % of Polkomtel ( Poland), 4.4 % of Bharti Airtel ( India), and 44% of SFR ( France ). However, that company have not adopted Vodafone brand whilst they are operating. However, that company have not adopted Vodafone brand whilst they are operating. It is essential for the company to develop products and services that are differentiated in nature in order to manage its portfolio effectively. Since the culture of different countries varies it is essential for the company to develop the product keeping in mind the customer preferences of the market. It is essential for the company to invest in Research and Development and analyse the condition of the market. Analysing the market of France and India is essential before entering and expanding its business in the market. It should also disinvest its products into entertainment sector. Making a deal with Google nexus also will help the company compete in the global market. It is also essential to make acquisitions in other countries where the business is expected to grow such as South Africa, India and Ghana. It also plans to introduce new products in the emerging market such as mobile telephones. The main aim is to expand Vodafones business and make its stand in the corporate world. Introducing new mobile technologies and developing new softwares will help the company expand and manage its business in the portfolio scenario (Hill et al. 2014). 4.3 Vodafone is slow in responding to industry evolution (changing industry evaluation) The main reason for the adoption of responding to industry evolution is the instability in finances and availability of low resources. It is essential to manage its cost structures. The company should concentrate in expanding its products services in order to quickly adapt to technological changes. The employees that work in the company should be efficient, knowledgeable, and skilful to adapt the technologies that are new to the market. The company should also have enough resources and money to adapt the change and react quickly to the scenario and present market condition (Johnson et al. 2015). The product and the value provided to the customers should be high and flexible in nature. The strategies that the company forms should be flexible so that the company can change the strategies as the situation demands. It should also concentrate in developing its communication strategy by developing plans such as effective digital marketing strategies. It is also essential to develop the sof tware according to the new technologies such as Apple and Blackberry. The software that it develops should be in compliance with the technologies that come in the market. The managers should be effective and knowledgeable and also should hire employees that have high skill to manage all the complexities. It is also essential to develop resource that is essential to develop and adapt the change in the technology (Albers 2013). Recommendation The analysis shows that Vodafone should derive increased value from international portfolio of business by making a deal with Google nexus to compete with its rival in the global market. It should also concentrate on providing laptops with data cards of minimum charges in the developing countries. Vodafone Company should concentrate on developing strategies that is globally accepted. The main recommendation is to develop and expand its product service and software from just mobile services to other sectors as well. The employees hired should be such that it is able to adapt the changes in the environment and technology. Software development is necessary and so is the product differentiation in order to gain competitive advantage (McFarlin and Sweeney 2014). Conclusion Hence it is essential for Vodafone to expand its business in the global market. To achieve competitive advantage Vodafone needs to review its international strategies. International scope has many benefits such as technological change, and gaining customer advantage by expanding the market. It is advisable for the company to expand its business in international portfolios and divest its business to other sectors to maximize profit and growth. Portfolio management is essential and concentrating on customer preferences is also essential. The differences in culture cause large variations in technological adaption. Hence it is essential to develop strategies that are efficient in managing the cultural differences of the countries. References Albers, S., 2013.Cooperation and competition dynamics of business networks: A strategic management perspective(No. 111). Working Paper, Department of Business Policy and Logistics, University of Cologne. Eden, C. and Ackermann, F., 2013.Making strategy: The journey of strategic management. Sage. Frynas, J.G. and Mellahi, K., 2015.Global strategic management. Oxford University Press, USA. Galliers, R.D. and Leidner, D.E., 2014.Strategic information management: challenges and strategies in managing information systems. Routledge. Gamble, J.E. and Thompson Jr, A.A., 2014.Essentials of strategic management. Irwin Mcgraw-Hill. Ghezzi, A., 2013. Revisiting business strategy under discontinuity.Management Decision,51(7), pp.1326-1358. Ghezzi, A., Balocco, R. and Rangone, A., 2014, January. The relationship between Open Innovation and Strategy: data-driven analysis of the Mobile Value Services Industry. InSystem Sciences (HICSS), 2014 47th Hawaii International Conference on(pp. 1073-1082). IEEE. Grant, R.M., 2015.Contemporary Strategy Analysis 9e Text Only. John Wiley Sons. Hill, C., Jones, G. and Schilling, M., 2014.Strategic management: theory: an integrated approach. Cengage Learning. Johnson, G., Whittington, R., Scholes, K., Angwin, D. and Regnr, P., 2015.Fundamentals of strategy. Pearson. McFarlin, D. and Sweeney, P.D., 2014.International Management: Strategic Opportunities Cultural Challenges. Routledge. Reddy, K.S., Nangia, V.K. and Agrawal, R., 2014. Farmers Fox Theory: does a country's weak regulatory system benefit both the acquirer and the target firm? Evidence from Vodafone-Hutchison deal.International Strategic Management Review,2(1), pp.56-67.

Mosaics Of San Vitale Essays - Justinian Dynasty,

Mosaics Of San Vitale Mosaics of San Vitale ERIK BUNGO The church of San Vitale in Ravenna was dedicated to St. Vitalis. After the discovery of the bones of the reputed martyrs Agricola and his slave Vitalis at Bologna in the fourth century, Vitalis was widely venerated in the west. The church of which he is the patron saint in Ravenna was begun by Bishop Ecclesius in the second quarter of the sixth century, when the Goths still ruled there. Funds for its construction were supplied by Julianus Argentarius. The church was completed and consecrated by Bishop Maximian in 547/8, after control had passed to the Byzantines . San Vitale was built on an octagonal plan (Ills. 1), with eight heavy piers supporting the drum and dome. The inspiration for the central plan likely came from the east, for Ecclesius had recently returned from a visit to Constantinople, but the construction is Roman. Of special interest are the mosaics of the sanctuary and apse. The mosaics in San Vitale cover the entire sanctuary (Ills. 2,3). In different symbols and ima ges, they all convey one idea: the redemption of mankind by Christ and the sacramental re-enactment of this event in the eucharistic sacrifice. The compositions must thus be understood as the setting for the rite celebrated in this room and as closely related to it. In the vault there appears the Lamb of God in the midst of a wreath, which is supported by four angels standing on globes. The image of the lamb was introduced into the Roman rite only at the end of the seventh century by Pope Sergius I, a Syrian . But, in the liturgies of the East, this symbol of the Christian sacrifice appears at an earlier date, and we are justified in interpreting its representation in San Vitale as alluding to the eucharistic liturgy (Ills. 4). The first arcade of the sanctuary is decorated with fifteen medallions, showing the images of Christ, of the twelve apostles, and of Gervase and Protase, who, with their father Vitalis, were venerated in this church. In the ancient liturgy of Ravenna, all these saints are mentioned in the so-called diptychs, the Book of Life, listing the names of those whom the church wishes to remember at every Mass (Ills. 4, 5). The next bay on either side shows, above the columns supporting the arcades of the galleries, two sacrificial scenes from the Old Testament. On our left, the three angels appearing to Abraham in the valley of Mambre (Genesis, chap. 18), and Isaac whom his father is about to sacrifice; on our right, Abel offering a lamb, and Melchizedek with his sacrifice of bread and wine. Above them, there appears the hand of God, the traditional symbol of the divine presence and of God's acceptance of the sacrifice (Ills. 6, 7). All four scenes allude to the eucharistic sacrifice. To make this significance plain, an altar is depicted between Abel and Melchizedek, on which are placed a chalice and two loaves of bread, identical in shape with that which Melchizedek offers and also with the eucharistic bread which the church used during the sixth century . The altar motif appears again in the opposite mosaic: Isaac is shown kneeling upon an altar, and even the table behind which the three angels are seated resembles the simple wooden altar of Christian antiquity. The three round cakes which Sarah has placed before the heavenly messengers are marked with the sign of the cross and recall again the eucharistic hosts of that time. In patristic exegesis and in Christian art and literature, the four scenes depicted are among the most frequent symbols of the eucharistic sacrifice. Above these mosaics and flanking the graceful arcades of the gallery, the four evangelists are represented: Matthew and Mark on the left wall, John and Luke on the right. All four appear seated in a mountainous landscape, holding their Gospels on their knees. Their symbolic animals are seen above them; writing utensils are placed at their sides (Ills. 8, 9). The relation of these figures to those below is obvious: as the two tables which Moses received on Mount Sinai contained the Old Law, so the New Regulation is contained in the Gospels. In the